Use of blood colour for assessment of arterial oxygen saturation in immobilized impala (Aepyceros melampus).

OBJECTIVE: To determine the relationship between arterial blood colour [as defined by the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) L∗a∗b∗ colour space] and haemoglobin oxygen saturation [functional saturation (SaO2) and fractional saturation (FO2Hb)], and if arterial blood colour can be used to predict arterial haemoglobin oxygen saturation. STUDY DESIGN: Descriptive study as an adjunct to two prospective randomized crossover studies. ANIMALS: A group of 10 wild caught adult female impala (Aepyceros melampus) weighing 34.1 ± 5.2 kg (mean ± standard deviation). METHODS: Impala were immobilized with potent opioids (0.09 mg kg-1 of etorphine or thiafentanil). A total of 163 arterial blood samples were collected anaerobically into heparinized syringes from arterial cannulae and analysed immediately using spectrocolourimetry and co-oximetry. Data were analysed by modelling the relationship between predicted arterial blood colour CIE L∗a∗b∗ components and SaO2 and FO2Hb. The models were then used to predict values for L∗, a∗ and b∗ to produce a colour palette for the range of SaO2 and FO2Hb used. The modified version of the Farnsworth-Munsell hue test was used to assess the subjective ordering of the resulting colour palette by 20 observers. RESULTS: The second-order polynomial (quadratic) model produced the best fit for all three arterial blood colour CIE L∗a∗b∗ components for both SaO2 and FO2Hb. The regression models were used to generate predicted arterial blood colour CIE L∗a∗b∗ components for the midpoint of each decile over a range of SaO2 and FO2Hb percentages (15% to 95%). The resulting colour palettes were correctly ordered by all observers in the SaO2 range of 45-95% saturation. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: An association between arterial blood colour (as defined by CIE L∗a∗b∗ components) and SaO2 and FO2Hb exists, and arterial blood colour can be used to give a clinically useful estimate of arterial haemoglobin oxygen saturation in impala.

ANTIBODY RESPONSE TO EPSILON TOXIN OF CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS IN CAPTIVE ADULT SPRINGBOK (ANTIDORCAS MARSUPIALIS), IMPALA (AEPYCEROS MELAMPUS), ALPACA (VICUGNA PACOS), AND RED-NECKED WALLABY (MACROPUS RUFOGRISEUS) OVER A YEAR.

Enterotoxemia is an important issue in various zoological taxa. In this study, serologic responses over a 1-yr period after vaccination with a multivalent clostridial vaccine were evaluated in 10 adult springboks (Antidorcas marsupialis), 12 impalas (Aepyceros melampus), seven alpacas (Vicugna pacos), and five red-necked wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus). Antibody production to the Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin component of the vaccine was measured using an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and determined as the percentage of inhibition (% inhib). Initial % inhib was (0.01-18.9)%. All animals received initial vaccination with a booster vaccine 4 weeks apart. Serum samples were collected at T0 (nonvaccinated), 15, 30, 60, 180, and 360 days postvaccination (dpv) for analysis. The vaccine induced a high antibody response that peaked at 15, 30, and 60 dpv in springboks, 30 and 60 dpv in impalas (P < 0.01), and 60 dpv in alpacas and wallabies (P < 0.01). The booster vaccine was followed by a high antibody response, which slowly decreased with time. The antibody response was significantly higher at 360 dpv than at T0 in wallabies and alpacas (P < 0.01). In impalas and springboks, it appeared that a booster every 6 mo might be required to maintain an antibody response above baseline (P < 0.01). Because no challenge studies were performed, it is unknown whether the measured humoral immune responses would have been protective. Further research is warranted to investigate protective effects of antibodies to inoculation challenge in nondomestic species.

PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS IN OKAPI (OKAPIA JOHNSTONI) USING BIOPRYN ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY FOR DETECTION OF PREGNANCY-SPECIFIC PROTEIN-B (PSPB).

Banked serum samples from seven okapi (Okapia johnstoni) with known pregnancy status were evaluated using the BioPRYN wild enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect pregnancy-specific protein B (PSPB). Thirty-six serum samples, 18 from known pregnant and 18 from nonpregnant okapi, were analyzed. Using optical density cutoffs, the BioPRYN wild assay demonstrated a sensitivity of 88% (95% confidence interval, 65%-98%) and a specificity of 100% (95% confidence interval, 81%-100%). In one sample, this test confirmed pregnancy as early as 21 days of gestation; however, two pregnant okapi were reported to be not pregnant at 23 and 38 days of gestation, suggesting sensitivity may be lower in early gestation. Sensitivity improved to 100% when samples were evaluated in okapi at 116 days or greater of gestation. Analysis of PSPB can be used to augment pregnancy diagnosis in okapi, a species that is of high conservation value and has documented pregnancy-associated morbidity.

EVALUATION OF A VISUAL ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY (ELISA) FOR PREGNANCY DETECTION IN FOUR UNGULATE SPECIES.

This study evaluated the use of a commercially available, visual enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for diagnosis of pregnancy in okapi (Okapia johnstoni), gerenuk (Litocranius walleri), eastern giant eland (Tragelaphus derbianus spp. gigas), and dama gazelle (Nanger dama). This assay has been validated for use in domestic cattle, sheep, goats, and water buffalo. Unlike other blood-based pregnancy associated glycoprotein (PAG) detection methods, this assay does not require sophisticated laboratory equipment for detection or interpretation and can therefore be utilized in many settings. Banked serum samples from gerenuk (n = 11), giant eland (n = 4), dama gazelle (n = 33) and okapi (n = 3) were tested, and a pregnant and nonpregnant sample from each individual were included. The ELISA showed 100% sensitivity and specificity in gerenuk and giant eland samples, and 0% sensitivity in dama gazelle and okapi samples. Using this assay, pregnancy was detected by 7-8 wk gestation in gerenuk and 6 wk in giant eland. These results are consistent with previous studies that were able to accurately detect pregnancy in other members of the family Bovidae, but it is possible that PAGs present in okapi and dama gazelle are structurally dissimilar relative to the intended test target, and are therefore unrecognizable using this test. The faint positivity in the dama gazelle assays may be due to cross-reactivity with other proteins in the sample, or due to inconsistent binding with the dama gazelle PAG. This ELISA appears to be an accurate, rapid, and inexpensive method of point-of-care pregnancy diagnosis in gerenuk and giant eland, but not okapi and dama gazelle. Additional studies should be pursued to further characterize the limits of pregnancy detection using this assay in gerenuk and giant eland, and to investigate the validity of this test in other nondomestic ruminant species.

HEMATOLOGY AND SERUM BIOCHEMISTRY VALUES OF CAPTIVE SOUTHERN LECHWES (KOBUS LECHE).

Blood samples collected from captive Southern lechwes (Kobus leche) were used to develop reference intervals for complete blood count and serum biochemistry values. The study population consisted in 108 healthy individuals, including 62 females and 46 males and 38 neonates (<2 days old), 27 juveniles (2 mo to 2 yr old), and 43 adults (>2 yr old) from the Réserve Africaine de Sigean, Sigean, France, between 2014 and 2016. No significant effects of sex and season of sampling were found. No significant differences were found for all hematology and biochemistry parameters between juveniles and adults, and their results were then combined. Significant differences were found between animals >2 mo old and neonates for most tested parameters; in particular, neonates had lower hemoglobin, eosinophil count, alanine transaminase, and total protein values, but higher alkaline phosphatase values. The reference intervals obtained were similar to values previously reported for other Bovidae species.

Ultrastructural morphology of lymphocytes of the Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx).

An ultrastructural study on the lymphocytes from peripheral blood samples from 20 healthy adult Arabian oryx (Oryx leucocoryx) was undertaken. Small lymphocytes ranged in size from 2-3.5 µm and exhibited the typical repertoire of organelles found in small lymphocytes of other animals but showed no evidence of azurophilic granules. Medium-sized lymphocytes were 5-6.5 µm in diameter and occasionally demonstrated azurophilic granules. Microvilli were a common finding of lymphocytes. Of particular interest was the presence of multivesicular bodies, which have previously only been described in human lymphocytes. Both small- and medium-sized lymphocytes of the Arabian oryx were smaller than those reported for other animals. Small lymphocytes exhibited short, thick microvilli, whereas medium-sized lymphocytes had long thin microvilli, a single nucleolus and occasionally azurophilic granules and multivesicular bodies.

Neutralizing antibodies against Rift Valley fever virus in wild antelope in far northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, indicate recent virus circulation.

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a zoonotic viral disease of domestic ruminants in Africa and the Arabian Peninsula caused by a mosquito-borne Phlebovirus. Outbreaks in livestock and humans occur after heavy rains favour breeding of vectors, and the virus is thought to survive dry seasons in the eggs of floodwater-breeding aedine mosquitoes. We recently found high seroconversion rates to RVF virus (RVFV) in cattle and goats, in the absence of outbreaks, in far northern KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), South Africa. Here, we report the prevalence of, and factors associated with, neutralizing antibodies to RVFV in 326 sera collected opportunistically from nyala (Tragelaphus angasii) and impala (Aepyceros melampus) culled during 2016-2018 in two nature reserves in the same area. The overall seroprevalence of RVFV, determined using the serum neutralization test, was 35.0% (114/326; 95%CI: 29.8%-40.4%) and tended to be higher in Ndumo Game Reserve (11/20; 55.0%; 95%CI: 31.5%-76.9%) than in Tembe Elephant Park (103/306; 33.6%; 95%CI: 28.4%-39.3%) (p = .087). The presence of antibodies in juveniles (6/21; 28.6%; 95%CI: 11.3%-52.2%) and sub-adults (13/65; 20.0%; 95%CI: 11.1%-37.8%) confirmed that infections had occurred at least until 2016, well after the 2008-2011 RVF outbreaks in South Africa. Odds of seropositivity was higher in adults than in sub-adults (OR = 3.98; 95%CI: 1.83-8.67; p = .001), in males than in females (OR = 2.66; 95%CI: 1.51-4.68; p = .001) and in animals collected ≤2 km from a swamp or floodplain compared with those collected further away (OR = 3.30; 95%CI: 1.70-6.38; p < .001). Under similar ecological conditions, domestic and wild ruminants may play a similar role in maintenance of RVFV circulation and either or both may serve as the mammalian host in a vector-host reservoir system. The study confirms the recent circulation of RVFV in the tropical coastal plain of northern KZN, providing the basis for investigation of factors affecting virus circulation and the role of wildlife in RVF epidemiology.

Determination of haematological and biochemical parameters of Calf Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) living in the Gansu Endangered Animals Research Center.

BACKGROUND: The Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) is native to Eurasia and is a member of the family Bovidae. Prior to 1920, the antelope had been extensively hunted for its horns, which were used in traditional Chinese medicine. Since 1920, the Saiga antelope has been protected because of this extensive hunting, which nearly led to its extinction. OBJECTIVE: The study evaluated haematological and biochemical parameters to provide references for the Calf Saiga antelope (S. tatarica). The study also sought to explore the mechanisms affecting these parameters in both genders of the Calf Saiga antelope. METHODS: Haematological and biochemical parameters were collected from the Calf Saiga antelope. Haematological and biochemical parameters were analysed by the Coulter counter and Automatic analyser, respectively. RESULTS: The average concentrations of female triglyceride levels showed significantly higher values than the significant concentrations of male. Female red blood cells and platelets concentrations were statistically significant than the significant concentrations of males. Magnesium female concentrations were also significantly higher than male values. Other parameters showed differences between males and females. CONCLUSION: The reported results show that haematological and biochemical characteristics varied among Calf Saiga antelope and other animals. The study results suggest that regardless of the factors, breed, the breeding environment, and climatic variables, haematological and biochemical variations can be triggered that can result in a reduction in the heat production needed for maintenance of homeothermy.

Ultrastructural observations on the platelets of the Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx).

An ultrastructural study on the platelets from peripheral blood samples from 20 healthy adult Arabian oryx (Oryx leucocoryx) was performed. Characteristic was the extreme polymorphism of both the platelets, as well as their alpha granules. They vary in size from 100 to 800 nm in diameter and their numbers typically are less than those reported for humans and other animal species. Also, the alpha granules in contrast to those of humans and animals, such as the Arabian tahr, do not have nucleoids. Typically, the oryx platelets exhibit only 1-2 electron-dense bodies per cell and they lack an open canalicular system. Of particular interest is the presence of Type I multivesicular bodies, which have previously only been described in human megakaryocytes and are hypothesized as being intermediate development stages of alpha and dense granules.

Hematology RIs for captive and wild Arabian Sand Gazelles (Gazella subgutturosa marica) of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

BACKGROUND: The Arabian Sand Gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa marica, Thomas, 1897) has been extirpated throughout the Arabian Peninsula. Captive breeding and reintroduction for conservation purposes require veterinary support and the use of hematology RIs. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of the study was to establish hematological RIs for the Arabian Sand Gazelle. METHODS: Blood from 231 clinically healthy captive and 22 wild (reintroduced) Arabian Sand Gazelles were sampled. The VetScan HM2 analyzer was used to determine the complete cell count (CBC) on the same morning of sample collection. American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology (ASVCP) guidelines were followed for statistical analyses. RESULTS: The white blood cell counts (WBC) and hematocrits (HCT) revealed broad RIs, the red blood cell counts (RBC) and hemoglobin (HGB) were characterized by a narrow RI, and the platelet count (PLT) yielded a wide RI due to high variance in the data. The HGB, MCHC, PLT, and platelet distribution width (PDW) were significantly different between the captive males and females. The majority of the variables assessed were significantly different between captive and wild animals. CONCLUSIONS: The large number of samples obtained for this study was considerable given the rare and endangered status of this species, which overall afforded narrow RIs and CIs. The main exception was for the PLT constituents. The significant differences observed between the captive and wild male gazelles show the need to understand the origin of the animals for which hematologic RIs are determined.

Blood acid-base status in impala (Aepyceros melampus) immobilised and maintained under total intravenous anaesthesia using two different drug protocols.

BACKGROUND: In mammals, homeostasis and survival are dependent on effective trans-membrane movement of ions and enzyme function, which are labile to extreme acid-base changes, but operate efficiently within a narrow regulated pH range. Research in patients demonstrating a pH shifts outside the narrow regulated range decreased the cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance and altered the oxygen binding to haemoglobin. These cardiopulmonary observations may be applicable to the risks associated with anaesthesia and performance of wildlife ungulates on game farms. The aim of this study was to compare blood pH changes over time in impala immobilised and anaesthetised with two different drug protocols (P-TMP - immobilisation: thiafentanil-medetomidine; maintenance: propofol-ketamine-medetomidine; P-EME - immobilisation: etorphine-medetomidine; maintenance: etorphine-ketamine-medetomidine). Additionally, we discuss the resultant blood pH using both the Henderson-Hasselbalch and the Stewart approaches. Two data collection time points were defined, Time1 before maintenance of general anaesthesia and Time 2 at end of maintenance of general anaesthesia. We hypothesise that blood pH would not be different between drug protocols and would not change over time. RESULTS: Significant differences were detected over time but not between the two drug protocols. Overall, the blood pH decreased over time from 7.37 ± 0.04 to 7.31 ± 0.05 (p = 0.001). Overall, over time arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide changed from 51.3 ± 7.5 mmHg to 72.6 ± 12.4 mmHg (p < 0.001); strong ion difference from 44.6 ± 2.4 mEq/L to 46.9 ± 3.1 mEq/L (p < 0.001); anion gap from 15.0 ± 3.1 mEq/L to 10.9 ± 2.2 mEq/L (p < 0.001); and total weak acids from 16.1 ± 1.2 mmol/L to 14.0 ± 1.1 mmol/L (p < 0.001). The bicarbonate changed from 29.6 ± 2.7 mEq/L to 36.0 ± 4.1 mEq/L (p < 0.001); and lactate changed from 2.9 ± 1.5 mEq/L to 0.3 ± 0.03 mEq/L (p < 0.001) over time. CONCLUSIONS: The profound increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide that worsened during the total intravenous anaesthesia in both protocols initiated a substantial metabolic compensatory response to prevent severe acidaemia. This compensation resulted in a clinically acceptable mild acidaemic state, which worsened over time but not between the protocols, in healthy impala. However, these important compensatory mechanisms require normal physiological function and therefore when immobilising ill or anorexic wild ungulates their acid-base status should be carefully assessed.

PILOT STUDY: PHARMACOKINETICS OF ORAL AND TOPICAL MOXIDECTIN IN THE RETICULATED GIRAFFE (GIRAFFA CAMELOPARDALIS).

The objective of this study was to obtain an estimate of the pharmacokinetic parameters of moxidectin administered at a dosage of 1 mg/kg orally and topically to healthy adult giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis ). The maximum plasma concentration (CMAX) of moxidectin after oral and topical administration was 69.2 ± 4.6 and 18.6 ± 16.1 ng/ml (P = 0.045), respectively. The areas under the plasma curve (AUC), a measure of total drug exposure, was 532.0 ± 232.3 and 209.1 ± 180.0 day*ng/ml (P = 0.308) for the oral and topical administrations, respectively. These data suggest moxidectin achieves higher peak plasma concentrations following oral administration compared with topical (transdermal) administration using the cattle pour-on formulation. Additionally, the percent coefficient of variation, a measure of variability, was smaller for the oral formulation (CMAX %CV = 7%; AUC %CV = 44%) compared with the topical formulation (CMAX %CV = 86%; AUC %CV = 86%). The smaller variability suggests that oral administration of moxidectin produces more predictable and less variable drug absorption than topical administration in giraffe and is the preferred route of administration.

BILIRUBIN CONCENTRATIONS IN CLINICALLY HEALTHY AND DISEASED CAPTIVE WATERBUCK (KOBUS ELLIPSIPRYMNUS) AT THE SAN DIEGO ZOO SAFARI PARK.

Captive waterbuck ( Kobus ellipsiprymnus ) that appear clinically healthy have been noted to have high serum bilirubin concentrations compared with other ruminants; however, questions remain about the physiologic factors affecting bilirubin concentration and its potential association with underlying disease and icteric serum or mucous membranes. Serum bilirubin concentrations of healthy and diseased waterbuck housed at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park from 1989 to 2012 were retrospectively analyzed to determine any link between icteric serum, total bilirubin concentration (tBili), and disease entities in this species. Total bilirubin and direct (dBili) bilirubin concentrations and the prevalence of icteric serum were compared by subspecies, age group, and health status; associations with complete blood count and biochemical results and clinical diagnosis were assessed. No significant differences were found in tBili or dBili between Ellipsen (n = 32) and Defassa (n = 29) subspecies or in juveniles (n = 22) versus adults (n = 39). Clinically healthy waterbuck (n = 40) had significantly higher tBili (mean ± 2SD, 7.9 ± 1.2 mg/dl; P < 0.001) and dBili (3.7 ± 1.0 mg/dl; P < 0.001) than did diseased waterbuck (n = 21; tBili: 4.9 ± 2.56 mg/dl; dBili: 2.2 ± 0.8 mg/dl). No waterbuck had icteric tissues on physical examination. Twelve (19.7%) waterbuck (six healthy, six diseased) had icteric serum. Few minor correlations were seen between tBili or dBili and clinical, laboratory, or necropsy evidence of disease, though an inverse correlation between dBili and blood glucose was noted. Of the 40 healthy animals, reference intervals were calculated for tBili (5.5-10.3 mg/dl), dBili (1.7-5.7 mg/dl), and indirect bilirubin (2.2-6.2 mg/dl). These results suggest healthy waterbuck have relatively high tBili and dBili compared with related species. Icteric serum may be seen in up to 15% of healthy animals in the absence of icteric tissues.

VALUES OF TRACE ELEMENTS SELENIUM, COPPER, ZINC, AND IODINE AND OF VITAMIN E IN CAPTIVE LESSER KUDUS (TRAGELAPHUS IMBERBIS).

Lesser kudus (Tragelaphus imberbis) have been kept in Zoo Basel since 1956. Juvenile mortality used to be high, and a recent study to reveal pathologic findings identified white muscle disease as a major contributor to this problem. Therefore, a retrospective study was initiated using 16 stored serum samples from lesser kudus from 2000 to 2013 to determine the concentration of selected trace elements, including selenium, copper, zinc, and iodine. Additionally, three serum samples were used to measure serum vitamin E values. Serum analysis revealed that copper, zinc, and iodine values were within reference ranges for domestic ruminants, and the supplementation status of these trace elements was assumed to be adequate. In contrast, vitamin E levels were low and selenium levels were scarce in several animals, indicating a deficiency of these essential micronutrients. The results of the analyses are compared with literature references.

Blood values of captive beira antelope (Dorcatragus megalotis) prior to and during an outbreak of fibrinous pleuropneumonia syndrome (FPPS).

Currently the only captive population of beira antelope (Dorcatragus megalotis) is held at the Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation, Qatar. An outbreak of a severe respiratory disease--fibrinous pleuropneumonia syndrome, most likely caused by Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae--led to a marked population decline. Reactive systemic inflammatory (AA) amyloidosis was noted as a chronic manifestation of the disease. Blood samples had been collected for biochemistry and hematology baseline values prior to the outbreak. Population-level changes were analyzed before and during the course of the outbreak in selected blood parameters (white blood cells [WBC], blood urea nitrogen [BUN], and creatinine). The annual population WBC increased and decreased concurrently with the population size, with a significant correlation between the two measures (R = 0.92; P = 0.001). Both BUN and creatinine values were higher during the outbreak. These values peaked at the same time as mortality, which was 1 yr after the WBC peak. These changes were interpreted as the transition from an acute disease with a primary respiratory manifestation into a chronic condition where renal amyloidosis led to chronic renal failure and death. Also, elevated liver values in diseased animals were attributed to amyloidosis. Parallels to a literature report on a lung disease complex caused by M. ovipneumoniae in bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) were found. Trends in population-level blood values of the beira antelopes implicate amyloidosis as a significant, long-term consequence of the putative Mycoplasma infection.

Daily or thrice weekly handling of eland antelope (Taurotragus oryx): effects on serum cortisol level.

We evaluated the cortisol response of adult female eland (n=8) that were handled in hydraulic chute daily or 3×/week. Females were divided into two groups and each group (n=4) successively received two estrous cycle synchronization treatments: (1) two injections of prostaglandin (PG-PG) F2α at 11 day intervals and (2) oral administration of altrenogest for 7 days and an injection of PGF2α on day 7 (Alt-PG). Blood samples were collected 3×/week during the synchronization (Synch) and expected luteal phase (Nonintensive) periods, and daily during the expected time of induced (Intensive 1) or natural (Intensive 2) estrus. Overall, mean cortisol levels were highest during Intensive 1, followed by Intensive 2, Synch and Nonintensive periods. Individual eland were the most significant source of variation for cortisol level. The frequency of handling and the synchronization treatment significantly affected cortisol levels in 3/8 and 4/8 females, respectively. In conclusion, in response to increased frequency of handling, eland cortisol levels rose transiently and returned to baseline within few days after more intensive handling. Thus, the eland females were tolerant to and recovered from the effects of repeated daily handling.

Feed consumption, nutrient utilization and serum metabolite profile of captive blackbucks (Antelope cervicapra) fed diets varying in crude protein content.

A feeding trial was conducted to determine the optimum level of crude protein (CP) in the diet of captive blackbuck (Antelope cervicapra) in which feed consumption and nutrient utilization are maximal. Fifteen blackbucks (BW 25-34 kg) were distributed into three groups of five each in an experiment of 75-days duration including a digestion trial of 5-day collection period. All the animals were offered 200 g of concentrates and fresh maize fodder ad libitum. The overall CP content of the three respective diets was 6.9%, 10.4% and 12.7%. Blood samples were collected on the last day of the experiment. Intake and digestibility of CP increased (p < 0.01) with the increased level of CP in the diet. Feed consumption and nutrient intake were not significantly different among the groups. However, digestibilities of most of the nutrients were higher in the 10.4% CP diet than in the 6.9% CP diet. The endogenous loss of nitrogen was similar among the groups. Based on the endogenous losses, minimum N requirement was calculated to be 776 mg/kg BW(0.75) /day, and to meet this requirement, diet must contain at least 8.27% CP. Serum urea nitrogen concentration increased (p < 0.01) with increased level of dietary CP. Serum level of glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase and glutamate pyruvate transaminase was higher (p < 0.05) in the group fed 6.9% CP diet. Animals in the group fed low protein diet also lost body mass during the experimental period. It was concluded that a diet containing 10.4% CP was optimum for maximizing nutrient utilization without any adverse effect on voluntary feed consumption and serum metabolite profile of blackbucks.

Evaluation of passive transfer in captive greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros).

Failure of passive transfer (FPT) in captive greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) calves can lead to increased morbidity and mortality. In this retrospective study, serum samples from neonatal kudu calves were tested for immunoglobulin using different tests validated for domestic ruminants, including measurement of gamma globulin (GG) measured by protein electrophoresis, total solids (TS) measured by calibrated refractometry, total protein (TP) and globulins measured by colorimetry, gamma glutamyltransferase (GGT), and the zinc sulfate turbidity test (ZSTT). In a logistic regression model, TP, TS, globulins, and the natural log transform of GGT were the only significant parameters associated with FPT. Various historic parameters related to the dam, as well as calf weight, sex, glucose, and packed cell volume, were not significant. Based on the results, FPT in greater kudu is defined as GG of < 0.5 g/dl, a value lower than that in domestic cattle. TS measured by refractometry has an 80% sensitivity and a 100% specificity for FPT in greater kudu. With FPT defined as GG < 0.5 g/dl, kudu calves with a TS < 4.8 g/dl and a negative ZSTT have an increased probability of requiring medical intervention and additional diagnostics may be warranted.

[Comparisons of endocrine hormones levels between Tibetan antelope and Tibetan sheep].

The Tibetan antelope, a prototype mammal, has developed a unique adaptation to extreme high altitude-associated hypoxia. To investigate the role of the endocrine system in adaptation to high altitude in the Tibetan antelope, comparisons of endocrine hormones levels between Tibetan antelope (n = 9) and Tibetan sheep (n = 10) were performed. Both two kinds of animals were captured at an altitude of 4 300 m and then transported to experimental base at 2 800 m altitude. The blood samples were drawn from right external jugular vein in the next morning, and the 20 hormones in hypothalamus-adenohypophysis-peripheral hormonal axis were measured with radioimmunoassay or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Heart rate (HR), systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and mean pulmonary arterial pressure (mPAP) were recorded using catheterization. Moreover, hemoglobin (Hb) content was measured by blood analyser. The results showed that, the levels of FT(3), FT(4) and Ang II in Tibetan antelope were significantly lower than those in Tibetan sheep, whereas TRH, CRH, GHRH, F, E(2), Ald, ACTH and CGRP levels were significantly greater in Tibetan antelope than those in the Tibetan sheep. Compared with Tibetan sheep, Tibetan antelope showed lower HR, mPAP, SBP, DBP and Hb content. In Tibetan antelope and Tibetan sheep, both Hb and Ang II were correlated positively with respective mPAP. In Tibetan antelope, FT(3) level was correlated positively with GH and negatively with ACTH. These results suggest that the endocrine system of Tibetan antelope is characterized by low energy expenditure and high stress, which may be one of the mechanisms underlying the Tibetan antelope adaptation to chronic hypoxia.