Appetite changes reveal depression subgroups with distinct endocrine, metabolic, and immune states.

There exists little human neuroscience research to explain why some individuals lose their appetite when they become depressed, while others eat more. Answering this question may reveal much about the various pathophysiologies underlying depression. The present study combined neuroimaging, salivary cortisol, and blood markers of inflammation and metabolism collected prior to scanning. We compared the relationships between peripheral endocrine, metabolic, and immune signaling and brain activity to food cues between depressed participants experiencing increased (N = 23) or decreased (N = 31) appetite and weight in their current depressive episode and healthy control participants (N = 42). The two depression subgroups were unmedicated and did not differ in depression severity, anxiety, anhedonia, or body mass index. Depressed participants experiencing decreased appetite had higher cortisol levels than subjects in the other two groups, and their cortisol values correlated inversely with the ventral striatal response to food cues. In contrast, depressed participants experiencing increased appetite exhibited marked immunometabolic dysregulation, with higher insulin, insulin resistance, leptin, CRP, IL-1RA, and IL-6, and lower ghrelin than subjects in other groups, and the magnitude of their insulin resistance correlated positively with the insula response to food cues. These findings provide novel evidence linking aberrations in homeostatic signaling pathways within depression subtypes to the activity of neural systems that respond to food cues and select when, what, and how much to eat. In conjunction with prior work, the present findings strongly support the existence of pathophysiologically distinct depression subtypes for which the direction of appetite change may be an easily measured behavioral marker.

Threats to Belonging, Immune Function, and Eating Behavior: an Examination of Sex and Gender Differences.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The first goal of this review is to discuss the evidence linking belonging threats to immune function and food intake. The second goal is to evaluate whether the links among belonging threats, immune function, and eating behavior differ based on gender. RECENT FINDINGS: Threats to belonging are linked to elevated herpesvirus antibody titers, dysregulated appetite-relevant hormones, and increased food consumption. Furthermore, these relationships are largely consistent for both men and women. Threats to belonging are also linked to elevated inflammation. However, some studies showed that these effects were stronger among women, others demonstrated that they were stronger among men, and others determined that the links were consistent for men and women. Understanding why belonging threats are inconsistently linked to inflammation across men and women is an important next step. We conclude the review with four concrete recommendations for researchers studying belonging threats, immune function, and eating behavior.

Participação dos receptores delta e kappa-opioides centrais no controle do apetite por sódio em ratos estimulados a ingerir solução salina hepertônica / Participation of delta receptors and central kappa-opioids in control of the sodium appetite in rats stimulated to saline ingerirsolução hepertônica

Alguns estudos sugerem que as vias opioidérgicas centrais parecem desempenhar um papel regulatório no controle da ingestão de água e sal em mamíferos. As ações dos opioides centrais sobre a regulação do controle hidroeletrolítico são mediadas por vários dos subtipos de receptores opioides. O papel dos receptores delta e kappa-opioides centrais neste processo não está adequadamente elucidado sendo necessário mais estudos que o esclareçam. Objetivo: Este estudo investigou o envolvimento dos receptores delta e kappa-opioides centrais no apetite por sódio em ratos depletados deste íon e em rato ativados centralmente com angiotensina. Material e Métodos: Foram utilizados ratos Wistar (270 ± 20 g), submetidos à cirurgia estereotáxica para implante de cânula guia no ventrículo lateral esquerdo (VL), no órgão subfornical (OSF), no núcleo preóptico mediano (MnPO) e no núcleo basolateral da amígdala (BLA). No protocolo de depleção de sódio os animais foram submetidos à injeção subcutânea de furosemida combinada com dieta hipossódica quatro dias após a cirurgia. Neste modelo de estudo os animais receberam injeção intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) do antagonista delta-opioide naltrindole no quinto dia pós-cirúrgico, nas doses de 5, 10 e 20 nmol/2 μL e do antagonista kappa-opioide, norbinaltorfimina, injetado no OSF, MnPO e BLA, nas doses de 0,5, 1,0 e 2,0 nmol/0,2 μL...

Central opioid pathways seem to have an important role on the control of water and salt intake in mammals, and brain opioid peptides may influence hydroelectrolyte balance through a myriad of actions mediated by distinct opioid receptors. The specific role of central delta and kappa-opioid receptors (DOR and KOR) in this process is far from being fully understood. In the present work, we investigated the role of those receptors in the control of water and salt intake, in sodium-depleted rats and rats with activation central angiotensinergic. Method: Wistar male rats (250 ± 20 g) were used in the experiment after stereotaxic cannulation of the VL left, SFO, MnPO and BLA. To study the effect of the blockade of central DOR and KOR on water and salt intake in rats were sodium depleted by the concomitant use of s.c. injections of furosemide and were kept in hypossodic diet, five days after surgery. In the sixth day, they received i.c.v. injections of a selective delta-opioid receptor antagonist (naltrindole) at the doses of 5, 10 and 20 nmol/2 μL and injections in the SFO, MnPO and BLA of a selective kappa-opioid receptor antagonist (norbinaltorphimine) at the doses of 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 nmol/0.2 μL...

Deletion of the gene encoding MyD88 protects from anorexia in a mouse tumor model.

The anorexia-cachexia syndrome, characterized by a rise in energy expenditure and loss of body weight that paradoxically are associated with loss of appetite and decreased food intake, contributes significantly to the morbidity and mortality in cancer. While the pathophysiology of cancer anorexia-cachexia is poorly understood, evidence indicates that pro-inflammatory cytokines are key mediators of this response. Although inflammation hence is recognized as an important component of cancer anorexia-cachexia, the molecular pathways involved are largely unknown. We addressed this issue in mice carrying a deletion of the gene encoding MyD88, the key intracellular adaptor molecule in Toll-like and interleukin-1 family receptor signaling. Wild-type and MyD88-deficient mice were transplanted subcutaneously with a syngenic methylcholanthrene-induced tumor (MCG 101) and daily food intake and body weight were recorded. Wild-type mice showed progressively reduced food intake from about 5days after tumor transplantation and displayed a slight body weight loss after 10days when the experiment was terminated. In contrast, MyD88-deficient mice did not develop anorexia, and displayed a positive body weight development during the observation period. While the MyD88-deficient mice on average developed somewhat smaller tumors than wild-type mice, this did not explain the absence of anorexia, because anorexia was seen in wild-type mice with similar tumor mass as non-anorexic knock-out mice. These data suggest that MyD88-dependent mechanisms are involved in the metabolic derangement during cancer anorexia-cachexia and that innate immune signaling is important for the development of this syndrome.

CD36 may determine our desire for dietary fats.

There is a strong link between high fat intake and obesity. In addition to its high caloric density, dietary fat has a hyperphagic effect, in part as a result of its high palatability. The recent identification by Laugerette et al. of CD36 as a taste receptor for fatty acids provides insight into the molecular basis of our preference for fat (see the related article beginning on page 3177). As we gain more information regarding the function of this receptor, we may be able to devise better strategies to address the addictive potential of dietary fat.

The role of central corticotropin-releasing hormone in the anorexic and endocrine effects of the bacterial T cell superantigen, Staphylococcal enterotoxin A.

Bacterial superantigens, such as the staphylococcal enterotoxins, exert a strong capacity for in vivo stimulation of T cell proliferation and cytokine production. Previously, staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA) was shown to induce an anorexic effect under novel contextual conditions of testing, and produced an increase in plasma ACTH and corticosterone levels in C57BL/6J mice. In the present study, the role of corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) in promoting these effects of SEA was addressed via intracerebroventricular (icv) administration of alpha-helical CRH(9-41) ((alpha)hCRH), a non-selective CRH receptor antagonist, and astressin-2B, a selective CRH receptor 2 antagonist. The efficacy of (alpha)hCRH and astressin-2B in blocking anorexic responses to CRH and urocortin under the current conditions of testing was first confirmed. Subsequently, it was found that (alpha)hCRH (20 microg icv), but not astressin-2B (10 and 25 microg icv), significantly attenuated the anorexia induced by SEA. This suggested that central CRH is involved in mediating the anorexia induced by SEA, but potentially through CRH receptor 1. Additional results revealed that plasma ACTH stimulation in response to SEA was not significantly attenuated by either antagonist administered icv. However, the plasma corticosterone elevation showed a modest, but significant, attenuation in SEA challenged mice given (alpha)hCRH. These data suggest a possible influence of central CRH on adrenocorticoid activity subsequent to SEA challenge. More importantly, it appears that central activation of CRH receptors is a consequence of SEA challenge, and this likely contributes to its anorexic effects.

Expresión de leptina en linfocitos (ARNm) / Leptin expression (mRNA) in lymphocytes

La leptina desempeña funciones en la regulación del apetito y la homeostasis energética, pero también ejerce acciones en el sistema inmune. La expresión de esta hormona y de su receptor se ha demostrado en múltiples tejidos. En linfocitos de sangre periférica se ha observado únicamente la expresión del receptor de leptina y resulta de interés establecer si en estas células se expresa también la hormona, donde podría ejercer una acción autocrina y/o paracrina. En el presente trabajo se determina mediante RTPCR la expresión del gen de leptina (ARNm) en linfocitos de sangre periférica en un grupo de 23 niños de 8 años de edad y en un grupo de 14 adultos. Se demuestra la expresión de la leptina en 15 de los niños del grupo de 8 años, mientras que no se detecta la expresión de la hormona en ninguno de los adultos. Se observa que los niños que expresan leptina en estas células presentan índices de masa corporal menores en comparación con los niños que no expresan la hormona (p < 0,01). Se sugiere que la regulación de la expresión de leptina en linfocitos es diferente a la descrita en tejido adiposo. Además, los resultados obtenidos permiten considerar que la expresión en linfocitos podría estar regulada durante el desarrollo. Es necesario realizar estudios más amplios para establecer el papel de leptina sobre el sistema inmune y su regulación durante el crecimiento y desarrollo (AU)

The reductions in sweetened milk intake induced by interleukin-1 and endotoxin are not prevented by chronic antidepressant treatment.

Administration of interleukin-1 (IL-1) and endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide, LPS) to rodents can decrease food intake, a behavioral response resembling the diminution of appetite observed in human depression. IL-1 and LPS are known to affect cerebral neurotransmission involving norepinephrine and serotonin, both of which have been implicated in feeding behavior and in the pharmacotherapy of depression in man. The ability of chronic antidepressant treatment to attenuate LPS-induced depressed feeding in rats has been cited as evidence that cytokines may be involved in human depression. Thus, we studied the effects of chronic treatment with the tricyclic antidepressant, imipramine, and the novel antidepressant, venlafaxine, on the sweetened milk intake challenged with intraperitoneally injected IL-1 beta and LPS. Chronic (from 2 to 8 weeks) treatment of the mice with imipramine (10 mg/kg once or twice daily) or venlafaxine (10 and 20 mg/kg/day) did not significantly alter the decreases in milk intake in response to mIL-1 beta or LPS. In some experiments, chronic imipramine slightly decreased body weight and slightly increased milk intake, but not food pellet intake. Venlafaxine had none of these effects. Analysis of variance did not indicate any significant interactions between the antidepressant and IL-1 or LPS treatments. These results indicate that chronic treatment with antidepressants does not significantly alter the responses to IL-1 or LPS in the mouse sweetened milk model of sickness behavior.

Modulation of the acute phase response by altered expression of the IL-1 type 1 receptor or IL-1ra.

A complete understanding of the role for endogenously produced interleukin-1 (IL-1), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) in the acute phase response to inflammation remains unknown. In the present studies, knockout mice lacking either a functional IL-1 type I receptor (IL-1RI(-/-)), a TNF type I receptor (TNFR-I(-/-)), or both IL-1 type I and TNF type I receptors (IL-1RI(-/-)/TNFR-I(-/-)) received a turpentine abscess. Additional mice deficient in IL-1ra protein (IL-1ra(-/-)) or overexpressing IL-1ra protein (IL-1ra(tg)) were similarly treated. After a turpentine abscess, IL-1 receptor knockout mice exhibited an attenuated inflammatory response compared with wild-type or animals lacking a functional TNFR-I. Mice overexpressing IL-1ra also had an attenuated hepatic acute phase protein response, whereas IL-1ra knockout mice had a significantly greater hepatic acute phase response. We conclude that the inflammatory response to a turpentine abscess is the result of a balance between IL-1ra expression and IL-1 binding to its type I receptor. Endogenously produced IL-1ra plays a central role in mitigating the magnitude of the IL-1-mediated inflammatory response and, ultimately, the outcome to a turpentine abscess.

The role of cytokines in the behavioral responses to endotoxin and influenza virus infection in mice: effects of acute and chronic administration of the interleukin-1-receptor antagonist (IL-1ra).

Following infection with influenza virus, animals display decreased locomotor activity and feeding behavior and loss of body weight. It has been suggested that these effects may be mediated by cytokines, such as interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), induced by the infection. To assess the potential role of IL-1, we tested the ability of a naturally occurring IL-1-receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) to antagonize the changes in feeding behavior induced by IL-1, endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide, LPS), and infection with influenza virus. Feeding behavior was assessed by measuring the daily intake of food pellets and sweetened milk in a 30-min period. Acute injection of IL-1 beta decreased milk intake, but mouse IL-6 and mouse TNF-alpha did not. However, TNF-alpha decreased food pellet intake slightly, especially when it was injected at the beginning of the dark phase. The reductions in milk intake induced by mouse IL-1 beta were largely prevented by IL-1ra pretreatment (100 micrograms/mouse i.p.). The LPS-induced reductions in milk intake were attenuated, but not blocked, by IL-1ra treatment (300 micrograms/mouse). LPS still induced significant decrements in the presence of the antagonist. In influenza virus-infected mice, IL-1ra was administered either by repeated subcutaneous (s.c.) injections, or by continuous s.c. infusion from osmotic minipumps. These IL-1ra treatments produced small, but statistically significant, attenuations of the depression in milk and food pellet intake in the virus-infected mice. In several experiments, IL-1ra treatment increased the survival of influenza virus-infected mice. Thus the attenuation of the hypophagia may have been caused by this IL-1ra-induced increase in survival. The results suggest that IL-1 contributes to sickness behavior induced by LPS and influenza virus infection, but it is not the only factor involved.