I Understand You: Blind 3D Human Attention Inference From the Perspective of Third-Person.

Inferring object-wise human attention in 3D space from the third-person perspective (e.g., a camera) is crucial to many visual tasks and applications, including human-robot collaboration, unmanned vehicle driving, etc. Challenges arise from classical human attention when human eyes are not visible to cameras, gaze point is outside the field of vision, or the gazed object is occluded by others in the 3D space. In this case, blind 3D human attention inference brings a new paradigm to the community. In this paper, we address these challenges by proposing a scene-behavior associated mechanism, in which both 3D scene and temporal behavior of human are adopted to infer object-wise human attention and its transition. Specifically, point cloud is reconstructed and used for the spatial representation of 3D scene, which is beneficial to handle the blind problem from the perspective of a camera. Based on this, in order to address the blind human attention inference without eye information, we propose a Sequential Skeleton Based Attention Network (S2BAN) for behavior-based attention modeling. As is embedded in the scene-behavior associated mechanism, the proposed S2BAN is built under the temporal architecture of Long-Short-Term-Memory (LSTM). Our network employs human skeleton as behavior representation, and maps it to the attention direction frame by frame, which makes attention inference a temporal-correlated issue. With the help of S2BAN, 3D gaze spot and further the attended objects can be obtained frame by frame via intersection and segmentation on the previously reconstructed point cloud. Finally, we conduct experiments from various aspects to verify the object-wise attention localization accuracy, the angular error of attention direction calculation, as well as the subjective results. The experimental results show that the proposed outperforms other competitors.

Delirium in the intensive care setting dependent on the Richmond Agitation and Sedation Scale (RASS): Inattention and visuo-spatial impairment as potential screening domains.

OBJECTIVE: In the intensive care setting, delirium is a common occurrence; however, the impact of the level of alertness has never been evaluated. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the delirium characteristics in the drowsy, as well as the alert and calm patient. METHOD: In this prospective cohort study, 225 intensive care patients with Richmond Agitation and Sedation Scale (RASS) scores of -1 - drowsy and 0 - alert and calm were evaluated with the Delirium Rating Scale-Revised-1998 (DRS-R-98) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual 4th edition text revision (DSM-IV-TR)-determined diagnosis of delirium. RESULTS: In total, 85 drowsy and 140 alert and calm patients were included. Crucial items for the correct identification of delirium were sleep-wake cycle disturbances, language abnormalities, thought process alterations, psychomotor retardation, disorientation, inattention, short- and long-term memory, as well as visuo-spatial impairment, and the temporal onset. Conversely, perceptual disturbances, delusions, affective lability, psychomotor agitation, or fluctuations were items, which identified delirium less correctly. Further, the severities of inattentiveness and visuo-spatial impairment were indicative of delirium in both alert- or calmness and drowsiness. SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS: The impairment in the cognitive domain, psychomotor retardation, and sleep-wake cycle disturbances correctly identified delirium irrespective of the level alertness. Further, inattentiveness and - to a lesser degree - visuo-spatial impairment could represent a specific marker for delirium in the intensive care setting meriting further evaluation.

The change processes in selective attention during adulthood. Inhibition or processing speed?

Selective attention is involved in multiple daily activities. Several authors state that it experiences a decline after 20 years, although there is no agreement regarding the cognitive processes that explain it. Two theories dominate the discussion: The theory of inhibitory inefficiency and the theory of processing speed. At the same time, it has been suggested that there could be complementary relations between both; however, it is not clear what the contribution of inhibition and processing speed is on the changes of selective attention. Therefore, the present study proposes to analyze this contribution, in adults between 20 and 80 years old. To assess selective attention and inhibitory control, two indices of a visual search task were obtained in which participants must identify a target stimulus among a set of distracting stimuli. To evaluate the processing speed, a response speed task was used. The main results indicate that, from the age of 60, a gradual decrease in selective attention begins and that this decline can be largely explained by a decrease in processing speed and inhibitory control. We discuss about the literature on the development of selective attention, the contribution of processing speed, and the inhibitory inefficiency hypothesis

No disponible

Prehistoria del TDAH: aditivos para un diagnóstico insostenible / No disponible

Para defender la validez diagnóstica del TDAH la literatura especializada emplea generalmente un argumento histórico, según el cual dicha validez resultaría indiscutible debido al hecho de que diversas fuentes médicas hablaban ya del TDAH hace varios siglos; esto demostraría que el TDAH no es una creación de nuestro tiempo. Sin embargo, al investigar esas mismas fuentes históricas, se puede comprobar lo injustificado de ese argumento, que contribuye aún más al descrédito de este constructo psiquiátrico tan controvertido. Se analizan en el presente artículo tres ‘hitos’ de la llamada historia o prehistoria del TDAH: Alexander Crichton, Heinrich Hoffmann y George F. Still. El TDAH, al contrario de lo que defiende la literatura dominante, es un invento moderno, y el uso de los argumentos históricos revela su mítica base teórica y una escasez de argumentos que debería ser muy alarmante, debido al número de niños diagnosticados y medicados de TDAH

In order to defend the diagnostic validity of ADHD, the specialized literature usually uses a historical argument, according to which its validity is unquestionable due to the fact that a number of medical sources have referred to ADHD for several hundred years. This proves that ADHD is not a contemporary creation. However, when investigating those same historical sources it is possible to prove that these arguments are unfounded, which contributes even more to undermine this highly controversial psychiatric construct. This paper analyzes the three classic ‘milestones’ of the so-called history or prehistory of ADHD: Alexander Crichton, Heinrich Hoffmann and George F. Still. Contrary to the claims of the dominant literature, ADHD is a modern invention, and the use of these historical arguments reveals its mythical theoretical basis and lack of supporting arguments, which should be a cause for serious concern, due to the number of children being diagnosed and medicated for ADHD

Problemas de comportamiento, problemas emocionales y de atención en niños y adolescentes que viven en acogimiento residencial / Behavioral problems, emotional problems and attention in children and adolescents living in residential care

Resumen El objetivo general del estudio es comparar la información aportada por padres, profesores y cuidadores sobre el comportamiento problemático y los problemas emocionales de preadolescentes y adolescentes venezolanos institucionalizados y que viven con sus familias, cuyas edades están comprendidas entre 11 y 16 años. La muestra estuvo constituida por 111 participantes institucionalizados en asociaciones civiles y entidades de protección del Estado, y 111 preadolescentes y adolescentes que conformaron la muestra control y pertenecían a colegios públicos, privados o subsidiados. Se valoraron los síntomas emocionales, el déficit de atención e hiperactividad, problemas con los compañeros, problemas de conducta y comportamiento prosocial. Los comportamientos problemáticos y los problemas emocionales fueron medidos a través del Cuestionario de Capacidades y Dificultades (SDQ), con la información proveniente de padres/cuidadores y profesores, y los problemas de atención fueron evaluados a través de la Escala para la evaluación del Trastorno por Déficit de Atención con Hiperactividad (EDAH) con la información de los profesores. Las conclusiones del estudio permiten afirmar que los participantes que viven en las instituciones presentan mayor nivel de problemas de comportamiento, problemas emocionales y de atención que los preadolescentes y adolescentes que conviven con sus familias de acuerdo a los informes de los padres, profesores y cuidadores.

Abstract The general objective of the study is to compare the information provided by parents, teachers and caregivers about pre-adolescents and Venezuelan adolescents institutionalized and living with their families, whose ages are between 11 and 16 years old. The sample was constituted by 111 participants institutionalized in civil associations and state protection entities, and 111 preadolescents and adolescents who conformed the control sample and belonged to public, private or subsidized schools. Emotional symptoms, attention deficit and hyperactivity, problems with peers, behavior problems and prosocial behavior were assessed. Problematic behaviors and emotional problems were measured through the Capacities and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), with information from parents / caregivers and teachers, and care problems were assessed through the Scale for the Evaluation of Disorder Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (EDAH) with information from teachers. The conclusions of the study allow us to affirm that the participants living in the institutions present a higher level of behavior problems, emotional problems and attention than the preadolescents and adolescents who live with their families according to the reports of parents, teachers and caregivers.

La escala Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) como predictora del TDAH: comportamiento de las subescalas SDQ respecto a las dimensiones 'Hiperactividad/Impulsividad' e 'Inatención' en una muestra clínica / Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) as predictor of ADHD: performance between SCT rates and 'Hyperactivity/Impulsivity' and 'inattention' domains of ADHD in a clinical sample

Introducción: La escala Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) es una herramienta de cribado clínico para infancia y adolescencia ampliamente utilizada internacionalmente en la clínica y en la investigación. Objetivo: El objetivo de este estudio es explorar la relación entre los diferentes índices de la escala SDQ y la puntuación en las dimensiones 'Hiperactividad/Impulsividad' e 'inatención' en una escala específica de TDAH. Método: Padres y profesores/as de una muestra de 212 niños/as de entre 6 y 16 años con un diagnóstico previo de TDAH, completaron las escalas SDQ y ADHD-RS-IV. Resultados: Se confirmó la relación significativa entre la dimensión 'Hiperactividad' de la escala SDQ y ambas dimensiones del TDAH. Sin embargo, otros índices de la escala SDQ mostraron también relación con ambas dimensiones, diferenciando esta relación según el informador y la dimensión clínica. Para la familia, la 'hiperactividad/impulsividad' estaba también relacionada con puntuaciones elevadas en la subescala 'Problemas de conducta', mientras que la 'inatención' lo estaba con 'síntomas emocionales'. Conclusiones: Estos resultados sugieren la posibilidad de valorar las puntuaciones en otros índices de la escala SCT para aumentar la sensibilidad de la escala a los diferentes perfiles clínicos del TDAH

Introduction: Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) is an international screening tool widely used for research and clinical practice on child and adolescents. Objective: The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between SDQ indices and 'Hyperactivity/Impulsivity' and 'inattention' domains of specific ADHD scale. Method: The SDQ and ADHD-RS-IV were administered to parents and teachers of a sample of 212 children aged between 6 and 16 years old with a prior diagnosis of ADHD. Results: A significant relationship between 'Hyperactivity/inattention' Scale (SDQ) and 'hyperactivity/impulsivity' and 'inattention' ADHD dimensions was confirmed. However, other SDQ scales were also related, depending of informant and ADHD domain. For the family, 'hyperactivity/impulsivity' domain was related with high scores on 'behavior problems' scale, while the 'inattention' was related with 'emotional symptoms' scale. Conclusions: This results suggest the possibility of to take into account rating scores on SDQ scales to increase the sensitivity of the scale to discriminate ADHD clinical subtypes

Flexible or leaky attention in creative people? Distinct patterns of attention for different types of creative thinking.

Creativity has been putatively linked to distinct forms of attention, but which aspects of creativity and which components of attention remains unclear. Two experiments examined how divergent thinking and creative achievement relate to visual attention. In both experiments, participants identified target letters (S or H) within hierarchical stimuli (global letters made of local letters), after being cued to either the local or global level. In Experiment 1, participants identified the targets more quickly following valid cues (80% of trials) than following invalid cues. However, this smaller validity effect was associated with higher divergent thinking, suggesting that divergent thinking was related to quicker overcoming of invalid cues, and thus to flexible attention. Creative achievement was unrelated to the validity effect. Experiment 2 examined whether divergent thinking (or creative achievement) is related to "leaky attention," so that when cued to one level of a stimulus, some information is still processed, or leaks in, from the non-cued level. In this case, the cued stimulus level always contained a target, and the non-cued level was congruent, neutral, or incongruent with the target. Divergent thinking did not relate to stimulus congruency. In contrast, high creative achievement was related to quicker responses to the congruent than to the incongruent stimuli, suggesting that real-world creative achievement is indeed associated with leaky attention, whereas standard laboratory tests of divergent thinking are not. Together, these results elucidate distinct patterns of attention for different measures of creativity. Specifically, creative achievers may have leaky attention, as suggested by previous literature, whereas divergent thinkers have selective yet flexible attention.

Building a framework for a dual task taxonomy.

The study of dual task interference has gained increasing attention in the literature for the past 35 years, with six MEDLINE citations in 1979 growing to 351 citations indexed in 2014 and a peak of 454 cited papers in 2013. Increasingly, researchers are examining dual task cost in individuals with pathology, including those with neurodegenerative diseases. While the influence of these papers has extended from the laboratory to the clinic, the field has evolved without clear definitions of commonly used terms and with extreme variations in experimental procedures. As a result, it is difficult to examine the interference literature as a single body of work. In this paper we present a new taxonomy for classifying cognitive-motor and motor-motor interference within the study of dual task behaviors that connects traditional concepts of learning and principles of motor control with current issues of multitasking analysis. As a first step in the process we provide an operational definition of dual task, distinguishing it from a complex single task. We present this new taxonomy, inclusive of both cognitive and motor modalities, as a working model; one that we hope will generate discussion and create a framework from which one can view previous studies and develop questions of interest.

Generating a taxonomy of spatially cued attention for visual discrimination: effects of judgment precision and set size on attention.

Attention precues improve the performance of perceptual tasks in many but not all circumstances. These spatial attention effects may depend upon display set size or workload, and have been variously attributed to external noise filtering, stimulus enhancement, contrast gain, or response gain, or to uncertainty or other decision effects. In this study, we document systematically different effects of spatial attention in low- and high-precision judgments, with and without external noise, and in different set sizes in order to contribute to the development of a taxonomy of spatial attention. An elaborated perceptual template model (ePTM) provides an integrated account of a complex set of effects of spatial attention with just two attention factors: a set-size dependent exclusion or filtering of external noise and a narrowing of the perceptual template to focus on the signal stimulus. These results are related to the previous literature by classifying the judgment precision and presence of external noise masks in those experiments, suggesting a taxonomy of spatially cued attention in discrimination accuracy.

Fearful, but not angry, expressions diffuse attention to peripheral targets in an attentional blink paradigm.

We previously demonstrated that fearful facial expressions implicitly facilitate memory for contextual events whereas angry facial expressions do not. The current study sought to more directly address the implicit effect of fearful expressions on attention for contextual events within a classic attentional paradigm (i.e., the attentional blink) in which memory is tested on a trial-by-trial basis, thereby providing subjects with a clear, explicit attentional strategy. Neutral faces of a single gender were presented via rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) while bordered by four gray pound signs. Participants were told to watch for a gender change within the sequence (T1). It is critical to note that the T1 face displayed a neutral, fearful, or angry expression. Subjects were then told to detect a color change (i.e., gray to green; T2) at one of the four peripheral pound sign locations appearing after T1. This T2 color change could appear at one of six temporal positions. Complementing previous attentional blink paradigms, participants were told to respond via button press immediately when a T2 target was detected. We found that, compared with the neutral T1 faces, fearful faces significantly increased target detection ability at four of the six temporal locations (all ps < .05) whereas angry expressions did not. The results of this study demonstrate that fearful facial expressions can uniquely and implicitly enhance environmental monitoring above and beyond explicit attentional effects related to task instructions.

Motivation versus aversive processing during perception.

Reward facilitates performance and boosts cognitive performance across many tasks. At the same time, negative affective stimuli interfere with performance when they are not relevant to the task at hand. Yet, the investigation of how reward and negative stimuli impact perception and cognition has taken place in a manner that is largely independent of each other. How reward and negative emotion simultaneously contribute to behavioral performance is currently poorly understood. The aim of the present study was to investigate how the simultaneous manipulation of positive motivational processing (here manipulated via reward) and aversive processing (here manipulated via negative picture viewing) influence behavior during a perceptual task. We tested 2 competing hypotheses about the impact of reward on negative picture viewing. On the one hand, suggestions about the automaticity of emotional processing predict that negative picture interference would be relatively immune to reward. On the other, if affective visual processing is not obligatory, as we have argued in the past, reward may counteract the deleterious effect of more potent negative pictures. We found that reward counteracted the effect of potent, negative distracters during a visual discrimination task. Thus, when sufficiently motivated, participants were able to reduce the deleterious impact of bodily mutilation stimuli.

7T fMRI reveals feasibility of covert visual attention-based brain-computer interfacing with signals obtained solely from cortical grey matter accessible by subdural surface electrodes.

OBJECTIVE: There is a growing interest in brain-computer interfaces (BCI) based on invasive technologies. fMRI is exceptionally suited for selecting implant sites since BOLD signals has been shown to correlate well spatially with electric potentials recorded from the brain surface. Previous studies show that it is possible to decode covertly directed visuospatial attention using fMRI. In the present study we increase the relevance of the fMRI analysis for surface-electrodes by only allowing voxels at the surface of the brain. METHODS: We classify visuospatial attention directed to four different directions (left, right, up and down) using a support vector machine while enforcing several spatial restrictions on the voxels available for the classifier. All the spatial restrictions applied are based on how accessible the brain areas are for implanted surface electrodes. RESULTS: The results show that fMRI signals from only the surface of the brain are sufficient for a good classification. Data also show that the topographical pattern is quite variable across subjects. CONCLUSIONS: A good control of BCI systems based on signals from surface electrodes can be achieved using visuospatial attention. Due to the large spatial variations in brain topography, individual mapping with fMRI to locate the optimal electrode implant sites is essential. SIGNIFICANCE: Visuospatial attention promises to be an effective target for implanted BCI systems.

Attention in Williams syndrome and Down's syndrome: performance on the new early childhood attention battery.

Attentional problems are commonly reported as a feature of the behavioural profile in both Williams syndrome (WS) and Down's syndrome (DS). Recent studies have begun to investigate these impairments empirically, acknowledging the need for an approach that considers cross-syndrome comparisons and developmental changes across the different component functions of attention. The present study assessed children with WS and DS using a new preschool attention battery (ECAB: early childhood attention battery), designed to be suitable for mental age 3-6 years including groups with developmental disorders. The ECAB has the advantage of giving an individual profile of attentional abilities for each child, covering different components of attention. In relation to test norms for their mental age, both groups showed a profile of strengths and weaknesses in the attention domain. Both syndrome groups performed relatively well on tests of sustained attention and poorly on aspects of selective attention and attentional control (executive function). The DS group showed a specific strength in auditory sustained attention, whilst the WS group showed a particular deficit in visuo-spatial response control. There was also evidence for considerable differences in the developmental trajectory of these abilities across the two groups. The results provide evidence for syndrome-specific patterns of impairment, and distinct profiles of strengths and weaknesses that may be useful in understanding the nature of everyday attention difficulties in these groups and tailoring interventions to meet these needs.

Saliency Detection by Multiple-Instance Learning.

Saliency detection has been a hot topic in recent years. Its popularity is mainly because of its theoretical meaning for explaining human attention and applicable aims in segmentation, recognition, etc. Nevertheless, traditional algorithms are mostly based on unsupervised techniques, which have limited learning ability. The obtained saliency map is also inconsistent with many properties of human behavior. In order to overcome the challenges of inability and inconsistency, this paper presents a framework based on multiple-instance learning. Low-, mid-, and high-level features are incorporated in the detection procedure, and the learning ability enables it robust to noise. Experiments on a data set containing 1000 images demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed framework. Its applicability is shown in the context of a seam carving application.

Methods for comparing scanpaths and saliency maps: strengths and weaknesses.

In this article, we are interested in the computational modeling of visual attention. We report methods commonly used to assess the performance of these kinds of models. We survey the strengths and weaknesses of common assessment methods based on diachronic eye-tracking data. We then illustrate the use of some methods to benchmark computational models of visual attention.

Parsing eye-tracking data of variable quality to provide accurate fixation duration estimates in infants and adults.

Researchers studying infants' spontaneous allocation of attention have traditionally relied on hand-coding infants' direction of gaze from videos; these techniques have low temporal and spatial resolution and are labor intensive. Eye-tracking technology potentially allows for much more precise measurement of how attention is allocated at the subsecond scale, but a number of technical and methodological issues have given rise to caution about the quality and reliability of high temporal resolution data obtained from infants. We present analyses suggesting that when standard dispersal-based fixation detection algorithms are used to parse eye-tracking data obtained from infants, the results appear to be heavily influenced by interindividual variations in data quality. We discuss the causes of these artifacts, including fragmentary fixations arising from flickery or unreliable contact with the eyetracker and variable degrees of imprecision in reported position of gaze. We also present new algorithms designed to cope with these problems by including a number of new post hoc verification checks to identify and eliminate fixations that may be artifactual. We assess the results of our algorithms by testing their reliability using a variety of methods and on several data sets. We contend that, with appropriate data analysis methods, fixation duration can be a reliable and stable measure in infants. We conclude by discussing ways in which studying fixation durations during unconstrained orienting may offer insights into the relationship between attention and learning in naturalistic settings.

Procesos atencionales en pacientes escolares con TDAH / Attention processes in school-age patients with ADHD

El Trastorno por Déficit de Atención e Hiperactividad (TDAH) es una patología compleja y heterogénea. Su sintomatología discurre por ámbitos epistemológicamente diferentes: biológicos, cognitivos, conductuales, impulsivos y contextuales entre los más relevantes. En su diagnóstico clínico no podemos obviar el análisis de esta amplitud disciplinar, y cuando se hace caemos en el sobre o infradiagnóstico. Se debe perfilar con rigor, como se está haciendo por muchos investigadores, desde la definición criterial al modo de evaluación. Objetivo: en este trabajo se pretende, en una muestra de 50 sujetos, indagar en algunas variables atencionales (atención sostenida, dividida y selectiva) que están significativamente dañadas en este trastorno y que en este aspecto pueden aportar más datos complementarios para un diagnóstico clínico más acertado y sistemático. Resultados: podemos observar en los resultados que no son muchas las diferencias encontradas entre los grupos, y esto es precisamente lo que lleva a confusión en la mayoría de los casos. Conclusiones: la revisión de los criterios junto a una evaluación neuropsicológica más potente y refinada puede ser el camino para perfilar y establecer, desde la clínica, una mayor precisión en los grupos de esta compleja patología

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a complex and heterogeneous pathology. Its symptoms encompass different epistemological fields of study such as biological, cognitive, behavioral, impulsive and contextual amongst the most relevant ones. Since it is easy to fall into over or underdiagnosis, a multidisciplinary approach is needed for the clinical diagnosis. It must be designed with rigor, as it is considered by many researchers, from the criterial definition to the means of assessment. Aim: the aim of this study, with a sample of 50 patients, is to investigate about some attentional variables (sustained, divided and selective attention) which are significantly impaired in this disorder and can contribute to providing complementary data in order to obtain a more systematic and pertinent diagnosis. Results: the results establish that it is hard to find many differences between the groups, which is precisely misleading in most cases. Conclusions: the revision of the criteria alongside a refined and stronger neuropsychological assessment may be the way to become clear and establish a greater precision, in clinical settings, within the groups of this complex pathology

Attentional requirements during acquisition and consolidation of a skill in normal readers and developmental dyslexics.

OBJECTIVE: Previous research demonstrated that individuals with developmental dyslexia (DD) may suffer from a deficit in the acquisition stage of a new skill, whereas consolidation processes seem to be preserved. The present study was designed to examine whether this impaired acquisition was attributable to a lack of automatization, and whether the reported preserved consolidation was attributable to the use of DDs' conscious compensation strategies. These aims were implemented by testing a skill-learning task in dyslexics and normal readers using a dual task paradigm. The impact of dual task costs on participants' performance was used as an indication for automaticity. METHOD: DD and control groups completed a sequence-learning task over a first session (acquisition) and a second session 24 hours later (consolidation). The task was performed by half of the participants under a full attention condition and by the other half under a divided attention condition. RESULTS: Consistent with previous reports in the literature, divided attention impaired sequence learning in both groups. Nevertheless, divided attention resulted in delayed acquisition of the motor skill in the DD group compared with normal readers. Finally, divided attention enhanced motor procedural consolidation only in the control group. CONCLUSIONS: The differential effect of divided attention on acquisition and consolidation of procedural skill in DD and normal readers supports the cerebellum deficit hypothesis in DD. In addition, the enhanced skill consolidation in normal readers under divided attention suggests that attentional requirements are not necessary for all types of human learning.

Driver distraction and driver inattention: definition, relationship and taxonomy.

There is accumulating evidence that driver distraction and driver inattention are leading causes of vehicle crashes and incidents. However, as applied psychological constructs, they have been inconsistently defined and the relationship between them remains unclear. In this paper, driver distraction and driver inattention are defined and a taxonomy is presented in which driver distraction is distinguished from other forms of driver inattention. The taxonomy and the definitions provided are intended (a) to provide a common framework for coding different forms of driver inattention as contributing factors in crashes and incidents, so that comparable estimates of their role as contributing factors can be made across different studies, and (b) to make it possible to more accurately interpret and compare, across studies, the research findings for a given form of driver inattention.