Evans blue dye as an indicator of albumin permeability across a brain endothelial cell monolayer in vitro.

An increase in the brain endothelial (BEnd) cell permeability of blood albumin is often seen as an early sign of blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption and can precede increases in the BEnd permeability of small molecules and other plasma proteins in the course of brain disease. Therefore, Evans blue dye (EBD), an albumin-binding fluorescent tracer that is simple to detect and quantify, has been widely utilized for studying BEnd permeability during BBB disruption. Here, we investigated whether EBD is a suitable indicator of albumin permeability across mouse BEnd cell monolayers, alone or cocultured with mouse cortical astrocytes, in an in-vitro permeability assay; given the strong affinity of EBD for albumin, we further asked whether EBD can affect albumin permeability and vice versa. Albumin and EBD readily crossed membrane cell culture inserts with pore diameters of no less than 1 µm in the absence of a cellular barrier, and their permeability was substantially reduced when the membranes were overlaid with a monolayer of BEnd cells. In line with albumin binding, the BEnd permeability of EBD was substantially reduced by the presence of albumin. While EBD at an EBD-to-albumin ratio similar to those typically used in in vivo BBB experiments had little effect on the BEnd permeability of albumin, a much higher concentration of EBD augmented the BEnd permeability of albumin. In conclusion, we investigated the use of EBD as an indicator of albumin permeability in vitro, explored some of its drawbacks and further demonstrated that EBD at the concentration used in vivo does not affect albumin permeability.

MRI of Whole Rat Brain Perivascular Network Reveals Role for Ventricles in Brain Waste Clearance.

Investigating the mechanisms by which metabolic wastes are cleared from nervous tissue is important for understanding natural function and the pathophysiology of several neurological disorders including Alzheimer's disease. Recent evidence suggests clearance may be the function of annular spaces around cerebral blood vessels, called perivascular spaces (PVS), through which cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is transported from the subarachnoid space into brain parenchyma to exchange with interstitial fluid (also known as the glymphatic system). In this work, an MRI-based methodology was developed to reconstruct the PVS network in whole rat brain to better elucidate both PVS uptake and clearance pathways. MR visible tracer (Gd-albumin) was infused in vivo into the CSF-filled lateral ventricle followed by ex vivo high-resolution MR imaging at 17.6 T with an image voxel volume two orders of magnitude smaller than previously reported. Imaged tracer distribution patterns were reconstructed to obtain a more complete brain PVS network. Several PVS connections were repeatedly highlighted across different animals, and new PVS connections between ventricles and different parts of the brain parenchyma were revealed suggesting a possible role for the ventricles as a source or sink for solutes in the brain. In the future, this methodology may be applied to understand changes in the PVS network with disease.

The involvement of perivascular spaces or tissues in the facial intradermal brain-targeted delivery.

Our previous work indicates the lymphatic network and perivascular spaces or tissues might be involved in the facial intradermal brain-targeted delivery of Evans blue (EB). In this article, we presented the detailed involvement of both, and the linkage between lymphatic network and perivascular spaces or tissues. The in-vivo imaging, the trigeminal transection and immunohistochemistry were used. In-vivo imaging indicated intradermal injection in the mystacial pad (i.d.) delivered EB into the brain at 2-, 6- and 24 h, while intranasal injection (i.n.) delivered EB into the rostral head and intravenous injection (i.v.) diffused EB weakly into the brain. Trigeminal perineurial and epineurial EB occurred along the perivascular spaces or tissues and along brain vessels. EB diffused into the lymphatic vessels and submandibular lymph nodes. Moreover, perineurial and epineurial EB co-located or overlaid with Lyve1 immuno-reactivity and VEGF antibody, and lymphatic network connected with perivascular spaces or tissues, suggesting lymphatic system-perivascular spaces might involve in the EB delivery with i.d. The trigeminal transection reduced the trigeminal epineurial and perineurial EB and brain EB along vessels. EB diffused in the fasciculus and the perineurium, blood and lymphatic vessels in the mystacial pad, mystacial EB overlaid VEGF or Lyve1 antibody. In summary, the dermal-trigeminal-brain perivascular spaces or tissues and the linkage to the lymphatic network mediated the intradermal brain-targeted delivery.

The accuracy of the modified Evan's blue dye test in detecting aspiration in tracheostomised patients.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of the modified Evans blue dye test compared to the fibre-optic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing to detect aspiration in tracheostomised patients. METHODS: This observational accuracy study included 17 patients hospitalised for respiratory complications, subjected to prolonged intubation, and for this reason, tracheostomised. RESULTS: Mean patient age was 60.2 ± 21.0 years. Aspiration was identified in 10 patients when assessed by fibre-optic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing; of these, 1 had aspiration when evaluated by modified Evans blue dye test. The dye test had a sensitivity of 10.0 per cent and specificity of 100.0 per cent for detecting aspiration. Fibre-optic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing revealed no statistically significant associations between aspiration presence and: speech and language therapy duration, intubation time, or tracheostomy plus mechanical ventilation duration. CONCLUSION: The modified Evans blue dye test is simple and inexpensive, and does not require prior knowledge in endoscopy; it may be used as an initial screening test in all tracheostomised patients for evaluating aspiration. However, fibre-optic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing should be used for a more comprehensive diagnosis of tracheostomy patients, especially for those at high risk for aspiration.

Neuroinflammation-induced lymphangiogenesis near the cribriform plate contributes to drainage of CNS-derived antigens and immune cells.

There are no conventional lymphatic vessels within the CNS parenchyma, although it has been hypothesized that lymphatics near the cribriform plate or dura maintain fluid homeostasis and immune surveillance during steady-state conditions. However, the role of these lymphatic vessels during neuroinflammation is not well understood. We report that lymphatic vessels near the cribriform plate undergo lymphangiogenesis in a VEGFC - VEGFR3 dependent manner during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and drain both CSF and cells that were once in the CNS parenchyma. Lymphangiogenesis also contributes to the drainage of CNS derived antigens that leads to antigen specific T cell proliferation in the draining lymph nodes during EAE. In contrast, meningeal lymphatics do not undergo lymphangiogenesis during EAE, suggesting heterogeneity in CNS lymphatics. We conclude that increased lymphangiogenesis near the cribriform plate can contribute to the management of neuroinflammation-induced fluid accumulation and immune surveillance.

Single Low-Dose Injection of Evans Blue Modified PSMA-617 Radioligand Therapy Eliminates Prostate-Specific Membrane Antigen Positive Tumors.

Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed malignant tumor in men worldwide. Prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) is a surface molecule specifically expressed by prostate tumors that has been shown to be a valid target for internal radionuclide therapy in both preclinical and clinical settings. The most common radiotherapeutic agent is the small molecule 177Lu-PSMA-617, which is under clinical evaluation in multiple countries. Nevertheless, its efficacy in causing tumor regression is still suboptimal, even when administered in several cycles per patient, perhaps due to poor pharmacokinetics (PK), which limits uptake by the tumor cells. We postulated that the addition of the Evans blue (EB) moiety to PSMA-617 would improve the PK by extending circulation half-life, which would increase tumor uptake and improve radiotherapeutic efficacy. PSMA-617 was modified by conjugation of a 2-thiol acetate group onto the primary amine and thereafter reacted with a maleimide functional group of an EB derivative, to give EB-PSMA-617. The PK and radiotherapeutic efficacy of 90Y- or 177Lu-EB-PSMA-617 was compared to the clinically used radiopharmaceutical 90Y- or 177Lu- PSMA-617 in PC3-PIP tumor-bearing mice. EB-PSMA-617 retained binding to serum albumin as well as a high internalization rate by tumor cells. Upon injection, metal-labeled EB-PSMA-617 demonstrated an extended blood half-life compared to PSMA-617 and, thereby, prolonged the time window for binding to PSMA. The improved PK of EB-PSMA-617 resulted in significantly higher accumulation in PSMA+ tumors and highly effective radiotherapeutic efficacy. Remarkably, a single dose of 1.85 MBq of 90Y- or 177Lu-EB-PSMA-617 was sufficient to eradicate established PMSA+ tumors in mice. No significant body weight loss was observed, suggesting little to no gross toxicity. The construct described here, EB-PSMA-617, may improve the radiotherapeutic efficacy for patients with PSMA-positive tumors by reducing both the amount of activity needed for therapy as well as the frequency of administration, as compared to PSMA-617.

Niosomes decorated with dual ligands targeting brain endothelial transporters increase cargo penetration across the blood-brain barrier.

Nanoparticles targeting transporters of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) are promising candidates to increase the brain penetration of biopharmacons. Solute carriers (SLC) are expressed at high levels in brain endothelial cells and show a specific pattern at the BBB. The aim of our study was to test glutathione and ligands of SLC transporters as single or dual BBB targeting molecules for nanovesicles. High mRNA expression levels for hexose and neutral amino acid transporting SLCs were found in isolated rat brain microvessels and our rat primary cell based co-culture BBB model. Niosomes were derivatized with glutathione and SLC ligands glucopyranose and alanine. Serum albumin complexed with Evans blue (67 kDa), which has a very low BBB penetration, was selected as a cargo. The presence of targeting ligands on niosomes, especially dual labeling, increased the uptake of the cargo molecule in cultured brain endothelial cells. This cellular uptake was temperature dependent and could be decreased with a metabolic inhibitor and endocytosis blockers filipin and cytochalasin D. Making the negative surface charge of brain endothelial cells more positive with a cationic lipid or digesting the glycocalyx with neuraminidase elevated the uptake of the cargo after treatment with targeted nanocarriers. Treatment with niosomes increased plasma membrane fluidity, suggesting the fusion of nanovesicles with endothelial cell membranes. Targeting ligands elevated the permeability of the cargo across the BBB in the culture model and in mice, and dual-ligand decoration of niosomes was more effective than single ligand labeling. Our data indicate that dual labeling with ligands of multiple SLC transporters can potentially be exploited for BBB targeting of nanoparticles.

Response to Single Low-dose 177Lu-DOTA-EB-TATE Treatment in Patients with Advanced Neuroendocrine Neoplasm: A Prospective Pilot Study.

Objective:177Lu-DOTA-EB-TATE is a theranostic agent based on octreotate that uses an Evans blue structure to bind albumin to improve the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. This pilot study aims to evaluate the efficacy of a single low-dose treatment using 177Lu-DOTA-EB-TATE in patients with advanced neuroendocrine neoplasm (NEN). Methods: With IRB approval and informed consent, 4 NEN patients were enrolled to undergo 177Lu-DOTA-EB-TATE treatment with a single low dose of 0.66 ± 0.06 GBq (17.8 ± 1.7 mCi); 3 other NEN patients were enrolled as controls to undergo 177Lu-DOTA-TATE treatment with administered activity of 3.98 ± 0.17 GBq (107.6 ± 4.6 mCi). One primary tumor and 62 metastatic lesions in the 7 patients were evaluated by 68Ga-DOTA-TATE PET/CT immediately before and one or three months after the treatment. Maximum SUV (SUVmax) of the tumors ≥2.0 cm in diameter were measured and percentage of change (ΔSUV) after treatment were calculated. Results: All 4 patients subjected to 177Lu-DOTA-EB-TATE treatment tolerated the administered activity without significant adverse effects and showed symptomatic remission. Among the patients, 40 tumors were found with diameter ≥2.0 cm, with the baseline SUVmax varied from 1.5-82.9 (35.9 ± 21.0) and the ΔSUVs before and three months after the treatment from -75.1-26.3% (-38.9 ± 25.5%). Twenty-nine (72.5%) of the tumors showed >15% decrease of SUVmax (ΔSUV = -75.1%--17.1%). There was a significant negative correlation between the baseline SUVmax and the ΔSUV after treatment (r = -0.852, P < 0.001). Compared with the control 177Lu-DOTA-TATE therapy, the 177Lu-DOTA-EB-TATE treatment using approximately 1/6 the dose showed no significant difference in ΔSUV (-7.9 ± 5.4% vs. -5.8 ± 3.9%, P = 0.189) as demonstrated by the tumors with comparable baseline SUVmax from 10.0-35.0. Conclusion: A single low-dose 177Lu-DOTA-EB-TATE treatment appears to be safe and effective in the treatment of NENs with high 68Ga-DOTA-TATE uptake. This pilot study merits further investigation with increased dose and frequency of 177Lu-DOTA-EB-TATE administration with potential advantages over 177Lu-DOTA-TATE.

ZW800-1 for Assessment of Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption in a Photothrombotic Stroke Model.

Background: Since it is known that serum albumin-bound dyes can cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) after ischemia, Evans Blue dye is commonly used to assess BBB disruption because of its rapid binding to serum albumin. In addition, indocyanine green (ICG), a clinically available dye, binds to serum proteins that could also be used for assessment of BBB impairment. Unlike these near-infrared (NIR) dyes, zwitterionic NIR fluorophore (ZW800-1) shows no serum binding, ultralow non-specific tissue uptake, and rapid elimination from the body via renal filtration. In this study, we report the use of ZW800-1 as a NIR fluorescence imaging agent for detecting BBB disruption in rat stroke models. Methods: Three types of NIR fluorophores, Evans Blue, ICG, and ZW800-1, were administered intraperitoneally into rat photothrombotic stroke models by using 4% concentration of each NIR dye. The NIR fluorescence signals in the infarcted brain tissue and biodistribution were observed in real-time using the Mini-FLARE® imaging system up to 24 h post-injection. Results: ZW800-1 provided successful visualization of the ischemic injury site in the brain tissue, while the remaining injected dye was clearly excreted from the body within a certain period of time. Although Evans Blue and ICG provided mapping of the infarcted brain lesions, they exhibited high non-specific uptake in most of the tissues and organs and persisted in the body over 24 h post-injection. Conclusion: Our results suggest the promising application of ZW800-1 as a new strategy in BBB experiments and future therapeutic development.

Quantification of Tumor Vascular Permeability and Blood Volume by Positron Emission Tomography.

Purpose: Evans Blue (EB) is an azo dye that binds quantitatively with serum albumin. With an albumin binding, NOTA conjugated truncated Evan's blue (NEB) dye derived PET tracer, we aimed to establish a strategy for evaluating vascular permeability in malignant tumors via non-invasive PET. Experimental design: Sixty-minute dynamic PET using [18F]FAl-NEB was performed in three xenograft tumor models including INS-1 rat insulinoma, UM-SCC-22B human head and neck carcinoma and U-87 MG human glioblastoma. Tumor vascular permeability was quantified by the difference of the slopes between tumor and blood time-activity curve (TACs, expressed as Ps ). The method was further substantiated by EB extraction and colorimetric assay and correlates with that calculated from dynamic contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI). The changes in tumor vasculature at different time points were assessed with NEB PET in U-87 MG and UM-SCC-22B tumor models after treatment with bevacizumab or doxorubicin. Result: The Ps values calculated from tumor and blood TACs from multiple time-point static images are consistent with those from dynamic images. Moreover, the Ps showed a positive and significant correlation with extracted EB concentration and KPS-MRI generated from DCE-MRI, which further confirmed the soundness of this methodology. The antiangiogenic effect of bevacizumab could be revealed by NEB PET in U-87 MG tumors as early as 8 hrs after therapy, demonstrated by a substantial decrease of Ps. On the contrary, there was no significant change of Ps in bevacizumab treated UM-SCC-22B tumors, compared with control group. However, the significant changes of Ps were overestimated in doxorubicin treated UM-SCC-22B tumors. Conclusions: We successfully developed a relatively convenient and novel strategy to evaluate vascular permeability and blood volume using NEB PET. This method will be advantageous in evaluating vascular permeability, promoting drug delivery, and monitoring tumor response to therapeutics that affect tumor angiogenesis.

A strategy for bypassing the blood-brain barrier: Facial intradermal brain-targeted delivery via the trigeminal nerve.

Although intranasal delivery bypasses the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the anatomical location of the olfactory mucosa and respiratory airflow interference lead to less brain-targeted drug delivery. In addition to intranasal delivery, evidence indicates that facial intradermal injection might be a novel strategy for bypassing the BBB via the trigeminal nerve (TN). The hypothesis was verified by pharmacokinetic evaluation, nasal injury, lymphatic vessels inhibition and immunohistochemistry. Intradermal injection into the rat mystacial pad (i.d.) elevated the brain sub-areas and trigeminal Evans Blue (EB) concentrations, Cmax and AUC(0-t). I.d. also increased them in brain sub-areas beyond those of intranasal (i.n.) and intravenous injection (i.v.), especially the pons varolii and the medulla oblongata (sub-areas associated with TN). I.d. injection increased the brain drug targeting efficiency, brain direct transport percentage and brain bioavailability of EB while i.n. injection altered them slightly. Trigeminal transection and nasal injury reduced trigeminal EB with i.d. administration. Trigeminal perineurium, epineurium, perivascular spaces, neurons and Schwann cells were involved in the EB brain-targeted delivery. The lymphatic system mediated EB diffusion from the mystacial pad to the nasal mucosa and the brain. Thus, facial intradermal injection might be a promising strategy for brain-targeting delivery, bypassing the BBB via the trigeminal substructures.

A New Modified Evans Blue Dye Test as Screening Test for Aspiration in Tracheostomized Patients.

OBJECTIVE: The authors assessed the diagnostic accuracy of a new modified Evans blue dye test (MEBDT) as a screening test for aspiration in tracheostomized patients. DESIGN: Monocentric retrospective study performed between October 2013 and December 2015. SETTING: Anesthesia and Intensive Care Unit, Second University of Naples. PARTICIPANTS: Among 62 eligible patients, 5 were excluded. The authors' study population included 57 patients. INTERVENTIONS: Patients underwent both fiberoptic endoscopic examination of the swallow (FEES) and MEBDT to evaluate swallow. The MEBDT results were compared with those of FEES and the diagnostic accuracy of MEBDT was calculated using the FEES as the gold standard. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The authors found that both FEES and MEBDT were positive for aspiration in 40 patients (true-positive MEBDT); FEES and MEBDT were negative in 10 (true-negative MEBDT). On the other hand, FEES was positive with an MEBDT negative in 7 patients (false-negative MEBDT), and there were no FEES negative and MEBDT positive (false-positive MEBDT). MEBDT had a sensitivity, specificity, positive, and negative predicted value of 85%, 100%, 100%, and 58.82%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: MEBDT could be a supplementary diagnostic test for aspiration. Patients with positive MEBDT should not undergo oral feeding, while patients with negative MEBDT should undergo FEES before starting oral feeding.

High intensity focused ultrasound hyperthermia for enhanced macromolecular delivery.

Mild hyperthermia has been used in combination with polymer therapeutics to further increase delivery to solid tumors and enhance efficacy. An attractive method for generating heat is through non-invasive high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU). HIFU is often used for ablative therapies and must be adapted to produce uniform mild hyperthermia in a solid tumor. In this work a magnetic resonance imaging guided HIFU (MRgHIFU) controlled feedback system was developed to produce a spatially uniform 43°C heating pattern in a subcutaneous mouse tumor. MRgHIFU was employed to create hyperthermic conditions that enhance macromolecular delivery. Using a mouse model with two subcutaneous tumors, it was demonstrated that MRgHIFU enhanced delivery of both Evans blue dye (EBD) and Gadolinium-chelated N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide (HPMA) copolymers. The EBD accumulation in the heated tumors increased by nearly 2-fold compared to unheated tumors. The Gadolinium-chelated HPMA copolymers also showed significant enhancement in accumulation over control as evaluated through MRI T1-mapping measurements. Results show the potential of HIFU-mediated hyperthermia for enhanced delivery of polymer therapeutics.

Hyperthermia of magnetic nanoparticles allows passage of sodium fluorescein and Evans blue dye across the blood-retinal barrier.

PURPOSE: The blood-retina barrier (BRB) is a biological barrier consisting of tightly interconnected endothelial cells inside the retinal vascular network that protects the neural tissue from harmful pathogens and neurotoxic molecules circulating in the bloodstream. Unfortunately, with regard to retinoblastoma, this barrier also prevents systemically administered therapeutics reaching the retinal tissue. In this study we introduce a novel technique to locally and transiently increase BRB permeability for drug delivery using hyperthermia of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs). MATERIALS AND METHODS: An alternating current (AC) magnetic field was used to induce hyperthermia of locally injected MNPs in the left ophthalmic artery of a rat model. To improve adherence on the surface of the endothelium, commercially available MNPs coated with human transferrin glycoproteins were used. After hyperthermia we assessed the extravasation of systemically injected sodium fluorescein (NaF) as well as Evans blue dye (EBD) into the retinal tissue. RESULTS: Spectrofluorometry and fluorescent microscopy image analysis show a significant increase of dye penetration in the retina where hyperthermia of MNPs was applied. CONCLUSIONS: Our proposed new technique can allow both small and large dye molecules to cross the BRB. While the results are preliminary and thorough evaluation of the retinal tissue following hyperthermia is necessary, this technique has the potential to be an effective mean for the treatment of various diseases such as retinoblastoma.

Blood brain barrier breakdown was found in non-infarcted area after 2-h MCAO.

The blood brain barrier (BBB) could be damaged within the thrombolytic time window and is considered to be a precursor to hemorrhagic transformation during reperfusion. Although we have recently reported the association between BBB damage and tissue injury within the thrombolytic time window, our knowledge about this early BBB damage is limited. In this study, rats were subjected to 2-h middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) followed by 10 min reperfusion with Evan's blue as a tracer to detect BBB damage. Rat brain was sliced into 10 consecutive sections and with TTC staining, a macro and full view of the spatial distribution of BBB damage and tissue injury could be clearly seen in the same group of animals. After 2-h MCAO, tissue injury started from 2nd slice and the BBB leakage started from the 5th slice, of note, there is no colocalization between BBB damage and tissue injury. Fluoro Jade B was employed to explore the localization of neuronal degeneration, and our results showed that 2-h MCAO produced greater number of positive cells in ischemic cortex and dorsal striatum than other areas. More important, 2-h MCAO induced occludin but not claudin-5 degradation in the ischemic hemisphere and pretreatment with MMP inhibitor GM6001 significantly reduced occludin degradation as well as BBB damage detected by IgG leakage. Taken together, our findings demonstrated a "mismatch" between ischemic tissue injury and BBB leakage and a differential degradation of occludin and claudin-5 by MMP-2 after 2-h MCAO.

Intraparenchymal ultrasound application and improved distribution of infusate with convection-enhanced delivery in rodent and nonhuman primate brain.

OBJECT Convection-enhanced delivery (CED) is an effective drug delivery method that delivers high concentrations of drugs directly into the targeted lesion beyond the blood-brain barrier. However, the drug distribution attained using CED has not satisfactorily covered the entire targeted lesion in tumors such as glioma. Recently, the efficacy of ultrasound assistance was reported for various drug delivery applications. The authors developed a new ultrasound-facilitated drug delivery (UFD) system that enables the application of ultrasound at the infusion site. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the efficacy of the UFD system and to examine effective ultrasound profiles. METHODS The authors fabricated a steel bar-based device that generates ultrasound and enables infusion of the aqueous drug from one end of the bar. The volume of distribution (Vd) after infusion of 10 ml of 2% Evans blue dye (EBD) into rodent brain was tested with different frequencies and applied voltages: 252 kHz/30 V; 252 kHz/60 V; 524 kHz/13 V; 524 kHz/30 V; and 524 kHz/60 V. In addition, infusion of 5 mM gadopentetate dimeglumine (Gd-DTPA) was tested with 260 kHz/60 V, the distribution of which was evaluated using a 7-T MRI unit. In a nonhuman primate (Macaca fascicularis) study, 300 µl of 1 mM Gd-DTPA/EBD was infused. The final distribution was evaluated using MRI. Two-sample comparisons were made by Student t-test, and 1-way ANOVA was used for multiple comparisons. Significance was set at p < 0.05. RESULTS After infusion of 10 µl of EBD into the rat brain using the UFD system, the Vds of EBD in the UFD groups were significantly larger than those of the control group. When a frequency of 252 kHz was applied, the Vd of the group in which 60 V was applied was significantly larger than that of the group in which 30 V was used. When a frequency of 524 kHz was applied, the Vd tended to increase with application of a higher voltage; however, the differences were not significant (1-way ANOVA). The Vd of Gd-DTPA was also significantly larger in the UFD group than in the control group (p < 0.05, Student t-test). The volume of Gd-DTPA in the nonhuman primate used in this study was 1209.8 ± 193.6 mm(3). This volume was much larger than that achieved by conventional CED (568.6 ± 141.0 mm(3)). CONCLUSIONS The UFD system facilitated the distribution of EBD and Gd-DTPA more effectively than conventional CED. Lower frequency and higher applied voltage using resonance frequencies might be more effective to enlarge the Vd. The UFD system may provide a new treatment approach for CNS disorders.

Improving Drug Penetrability with iRGD Leverages the Therapeutic Response to Sorafenib and Doxorubicin in Hepatocellular Carcinoma.

iRGD is a derivative of the integrin-binding peptide RGD, which selectively increases the penetrability of tumor tissue to various coadministered substances in several preclinical models. In this study, we investigated the ability of iRGD to improve the delivery of sorafenib and doxorubicin therapy in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) using established mouse models of the disease. A contrast-enhanced MRI method was developed in parallel to assess the in vivo effects of iRGD in this setting. We found that iRGD improved the delivery of marker substances to the tumors of HCC-bearing mice about three-fold without a parallel increase in normal tissues. Control peptides lacking the critical CendR motif had no effect. Similarly, iRGD also selectively increased the signal intensity from tumors in Gd-DTPA-enhanced MRI. In terms of antitumor efficacy, iRGD coadministration significantly augmented the individual inhibitory effects of sorafenib and doxorubicin without increasing systemic toxicity. Overall, our results offered a preclinical proof of concept for the use of iRGD coadministration as a strategy to widen the therapeutic window for HCC chemotherapy, as monitored by Gd-DTPA-enhanced MRI as a noninvasive, clinically applicable method to identify iRGD-reactive tumors.

Quantification of neurovascular protection following repetitive hypoxic preconditioning and transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in mice.

Experimental animal models of stroke are invaluable tools for understanding stroke pathology and developing more effective treatment strategies. A 2 week protocol for repetitive hypoxic preconditioning (RHP) induces long-term protection against central nervous system (CNS) injury in a mouse model of focal ischemic stroke. RHP consists of 9 stochastic exposures to hypoxia that vary in both duration (2 or 4 hr) and intensity (8% and 11% O2). RHP reduces infarct volumes, blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption, and the post-stroke inflammatory response for weeks following the last exposure to hypoxia, suggesting a long-term induction of an endogenous CNS-protective phenotype. The methodology for the dual quantification of infarct volume and BBB disruption is effective in assessing neurovascular protection in mice with RHP or other putative neuroprotectants. Adult male Swiss Webster mice were preconditioned by RHP or duration-equivalent exposures to 21% O2 (i.e. room air). A 60 min transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAo) was induced 2 weeks following the last hypoxic exposure. Both the occlusion and reperfusion were confirmed by transcranial laser Doppler flowmetry. Twenty-two hr after reperfusion, Evans Blue (EB) was intravenously administered through a tail vein injection. 2 hr later, animals were sacrificed by isoflurane overdose and brain sections were stained with 2,3,5- triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC). Infarcts volumes were then quantified. Next, EB was extracted from the tissue over 48 hr to determine BBB disruption after tMCAo. In summary, RHP is a simple protocol that can be replicated, with minimal cost, to induce long-term endogenous neurovascular protection from stroke injury in mice, with the translational potential for other CNS-based and systemic pro-inflammatory disease states.

Evans blue nanocarriers visually demarcate margins of invasive gliomas.

Aggressive surgical resection is the primary therapy for glioma. However, aggressive resection may compromise functional healthy brain tissue. Currently, there are no objective cues for surgeons to distinguish healthy tissue from tumor and determine tumor borders; surgeons skillfully rely on subjective means such as tactile feedback. This often results in incomplete resection and recurrence. The objective of the present study was to design, develop, and evaluate, in vitro and in vivo, a nanoencapsulated visible dye for intraoperative, visual delineation of tumor margins in an invasive tumor model. Liposomal nanocarriers containing Evans blue dye (nano-EB) were developed, characterized, and tested for safety in vitro and in vivo. 3RT1RT2A glioma cells were implanted into brains of Fischer 344 rats. Nano-EB or EB solution was injected via tail vein into tumor-bearing animals. To assess tumor staining, tissue samples were analyzed visibly and using fluorescence microscopy. Area, perimeter ratios, and Manders overlap coefficients were calculated to quantify extent of staining. Nano-EB clearly marked tumor margins in the invasive tumor model. Area ratio of nano-EB staining to tumor was 0.89 ± 0.05, perimeter ratio was 0.94 ± 0.04, Manders R was 0.51 ± 0.08, and M1 was 0.97 ± 0.06. Microscopic tumor border inspection under high magnification verified that nano-EB did not stain healthy tissue. Nano-EB clearly aids in distinguishing tumor tissue from healthy tissue in an invasive tumor model, while injection of unencapsulated EB results in false identification of healthy tissue as tumor due to diffusion of dye from the tumor into healthy tissue.

Remote control of the permeability of the blood-brain barrier by magnetic heating of nanoparticles: A proof of concept for brain drug delivery.

Despite advances in neurology, drug delivery to the brain remains a substantial challenge. This is mainly due to the insurmountable and selective nature of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In this study, we show that the thermal energy generated by magnetic heating (hyperthermia) of commercially available magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) in the brain capillaries of rats can transiently increase barrier permeability. Here, the fluorescent Evans Blue (EB) dye was used to verify the BBB integrity. Results indicate a substantial but reversible opening of the BBB where hyperthermia is applied. Also, in this investigation, analysis of CD68 immunoreactivity, an indicator of inflammation, implies that this technique is not associated with any inflammation. We have previously investigated theranostic (therapeutic and diagnostic) capabilities of the MNPs, therefore, the findings presented in this investigation are particularly encouraging for a novel targeted drug delivery system to the brain.