Beclomethasone loaded liposomes enriched with mucin: A suitable approach for the control of skin disorders.

Inflammatory skin disorders are the fourth leading cause of chronic non-fatal conditions, which have a serious impact on the patient quality of life. Due to their treatment with conventional corticosteroids, which often result in poor therapeutic efficacy, relapses and systemic side effects from prolonged therapy, these diseases represent a global burden that negatively impacts the global economy. To avoid these problems and optimize corticosteroid benefits, beclomethasone was loaded into liposome formulations specifically tailored for skin delivery. These formulations were enhanced with mucin (0.1 and 0.5 % w/v) to further ensure prolonged formulation permanence at the site of application. The addition of 0.5 % w/v mucin resulted in the formation of small unilamellar vesicles and multicompartment vesicles. Liposomes and 1mucin-liposomes were smaller (∼48 and ∼61 nm, respectively) and more monodispersed (PI ∼ 0.14 and ∼ 0.17, respectively) than 5mucin-liposomes, which were larger (∼137 nm), slightly polydispersed (PI ∼ 0.23), and less stable during storage (4 months in the dark at 25 °C). Liposomes were negatively charged (∼ -79 mV) irrespective of their composition, and capable of incorporating high amount of beclomethasone (∼ 80 %). In vitro studies on skin fibroblasts and keratinocytes confirmed the high biocompatibility of all formulations (viability ≥ 95 %). However, the use of mucin-liposomes resulted in higher efficacy against nitric oxide production and free radical damage. Finally, topical applications using 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-injured skin in vivo experiments showed that only the mucin-enriched formulations could restore healthy conditions within 4 days, underscoring promise as a treatment for skin disorders.

Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Beclometasone-Loaded Filomicelles on Activated Human Monocytes.

Polymeric micelles with a hydrophobic core represent versatile nanostructures for encapsulation and delivery of water-insoluble drugs. Here, water-insoluble beclometasone dipropionate (BDP) which is a potent anti-inflammatory therapeutic agent but limited to topical applications so far, is encapsulated. Therefore, this work used an amphiphilic block copolymer self-assembling into flexible polymeric filomicelles, which have recently proven to selectively target inflamed areas in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The small diameter and flexibility of these filomicelles is considered beneficial for transepithelial passages, while their length minimizes the unspecific uptake into nontargeted cells. This work successfully establishes a protocol to load the water-insoluble BDP into the core of the filomicelles, while maintaining the particle stability to prevent any premature drug release. The anti-inflammatory efficacy of BDP-loaded filomicelles is further investigated on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated human monocytes. In these ex vivo assays, the BDP-loaded filomicelles significantly reduce TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1ß, IL-12p70, IL-17a, and IL-23 release after 24 h. Additional time course study of drug-loaded filomicelles and their comparison with a common water-soluble and unspecific corticosteroid demonstrate promising results with significant immune response suppression in stimulated monocytes after 2 and 6 h. These findings demonstrate the potential of polymeric filomicelles as a vehicle for potent water-insoluble corticosteroids.

Curcumin activates G protein-coupled receptor 97 (GPR97) in a manner different from glucocorticoid.

Curcumin is a yellow pigment in turmeric (Curcuma longa) with various physiological effects in the body. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms by which bioactive compounds exert their function, identification of their molecular targets is crucial. In this study, we show that curcumin activates G protein-coupled receptor 97 (GPR97). Curcumin dose-dependently activated serum-response element-, but not serum-response factor-response element-, nuclear factor of activated T-cell-response element-, or cAMP-response element-, mediated transcription in cells overexpressed with GPR97. The structure-activity relationship indicated that (i) the double-bonds of the central 7-carbon chain were essential for activation; (ii) a methoxy group on the aromatic ring was required for maximal activity; (iii) the addition of glucuronic acid moiety or a methoxy group to the aromatic ring, but not the methylation of the aromatic p-hydroxy group, eliminated the activity; (iv) the stability of curcumin would be related to receptor activation. Both mutant GPR97(T250A) lacking the cleavage at GPCR proteolysis site and mutant GPR97(ΔN) lacking the N-terminal extracellular region were activated by curcumin and its related compounds similar to wild-type GPR97. In contrast, the synthetic glucocorticoid beclomethasone dipropionate and l-Phe activated wild-type GPR97 and GPR97(T250A), but not GPR97(ΔN). Moreover, curcumin exerted an additive effect on the activation of wild-type GPR97 with beclomethasone dipropionate, but not with l-Phe. Taken together, these results indicate that curcumin activates GPR97 coupled to Gi/Go subunit, and suggest that curcumin and glucocorticoid activate GPR97 in a different manner.

Practical and scalable synthesis of beclomethasone dipropionate.

Beclomethasone dipropionate (1) is a synthetic corticosteroid with anti-inflammatory, antipruritic, and anti-allergy properties. It is widely used to treat asthma, allergic rhinitis, and dermatoses. However, existing synthetic routes to this active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) contain steps resulting in low and/or inconsistent yields, and use obsolete reagents. Such inconsistencies coupled with a lack of reliable experimental data makes laboratory-scale and large-scale synthesis of this API difficult and time-consuming. In this paper, we report a practical and scalable approach to synthesize 1 from the readily available steroidal intermediate, 16ß-methyl epoxide (3, DB-11). A gram-scale to kilogram-scale synthesis of 1 was achieved with 82% yield, using a cost-effective and scalable methodology. Selective propionylation of the hydroxyl groups at C17 and C21 demonstrate the fact that this approach can be conveniently implemented in fine chemical industries.

Relationship Between Geometric and Aerodynamic Particle Size Distributions in the Formulation of Solution and Suspension Metered-Dose Inhalers.

The relationship between the geometric particle size distribution (GPSD) and the aerodynamic particle size distribution (APSD) of commercial solution and suspension metered-dose inhaler (MDI) formulations was assessed to clarify the use of GPSD to estimate the APSD. The size distribution of particles discharged from four suspension and four solution MDIs was measured using the Inas®100 light-scattering spectrometer and a Next Generation Impactor. The conversion factor was calculated by measuring the GPSD and APSD of MDIs. The morphology and physical properties of MDIs were studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Six of the eight MDIs showed similar conversion factor profiles, irrespective of their composition and formulation types. Applying the conversion factor obtained from one of the six MDIs resulted in a particle size distribution comparable to each APSD except for some formulations. The two other solution MDIs, which contained citric acid, had much higher and variable conversion factors. SEM images and DSC scans of the solids obtained by nebulization of the solutions containing beclomethasone and/or citric acid showed the formation of a paste-like amorphous solid. These results indicated that APSD of solution and suspension MDIs that form rigid particles may be estimated by using the conversion factor and GPSD. Contrarily, the estimation is more difficult in formulations that tend to lose the particle structure during the measurement.

Multi-Solvent Microdroplet Evaporation: Modeling and Measurement of Spray-Drying Kinetics with Inhalable Pharmaceutics.

PURPOSE: Evaporation and particle formation from multi-solvent microdroplets containing solid excipients pertaining to spray-drying of therapeutic agents intended for lung delivery were studied. Various water and ethanol co-solvent systems containing a variety of actives and excipients (beclomethasone, budesonide, leucine, and trehalose) were considered. METHODS: Numerical methods were used to predict the droplet evaporation rates and internal solute transfers, and their results verified and compared with results from two separate experimental setups. In particular, an electrodynamic balance was used to measure the evaporation rates of multicomponent droplets and a monodisperse droplet chain setup collected dried microparticles for further analytical investigations and ultramicroscopy. RESULTS: The numerical results are used to explain the different particle morphologies dried from solutions at different co-solvent compositions. The obtained numerical data clearly show that the two parameters controlling the general morphology of a dried particle, namely the Péclet number and the degree of saturation, can change with time in a multi-solvent droplet. This fact complicates product development for such systems. However, this additional complexity vanishes at what we define as the iso-compositional point, which occurs when the solvent ratios and other composition-dependent properties of the droplet remain constant during evaporation, similar to the azeotrope of such systems during distillation. CONCLUSIONS: Numerical and experimental analysis of multi-solvent systems indicate that spray-drying near the iso-compositional ratio simplifies the design and process development of such systems.

Optimization and Evaluation of Beclomethasone Dipropionate Micelles Incorporated into Biocompatible Hydrogel Using a Sub-Chronic Dermatitis Animal Model.

The current study is concerned with the development and characterization of mixed micelles intended for the dermal delivery of beclomethasone dipropionate, which is a topical corticosteroid used in the management of atopic dermatitis. Mixed micelles were prepared using thin-film hydration technique, employing different concentrations of pluronic L121 with either poloxamer P84 or pluronic F127 with different surfactant mixture-to-drug ratios. The prepared formulae were characterized concerning entrapment efficiency, particle size, and zeta potential. Two formulae were chosen for ex vivo skin deposition studies: one formulated using pluronic L121/poloxamer P84 mixture while the other using pluronic L121/pluronic F127 mixture. The optimum formula with the highest dermal deposition was subjected to morphological examination and was formulated as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose hydrogel. The hydrogel was evaluated regarding viscosity and was subjected to ex vivo deposition study in comparison with the commercially available cream Beclozone®. In vivo histopathological study was conducted for both the hydrogel and Beclozone® in order to evaluate their healing efficiency. In vivo histopathological study results showed that the prepared hydrogel successfully treated sub-chronic dermatitis in an animal model within a shorter period of time compared to Beclozone®, resulting in better patient compliance and fewer side effects.

Evaluation of Bio-relevant Mouth-Throat Models for Characterization of Metered Dose Inhalers.

For inhalation drug characterization, the traditionally used USP induction port provides limited in vivo predictive capability because it does not adequately mimic airway geometry. In this study, various bio-relevant mouth-throat (MT) models, including Alberta Idealized Throat (AIT), and 3D printed large/medium/small-sized VCU (Virginia Commonwealth University) models were evaluated using two metered dose inhaler (MDI) drug products: a solution MDI containing beclomethasone dipropionate (BDP-MDI) and a suspension MDI containing fluticasone propionate (FP-MDI). For BDP-MDI, use of VCU large and small MT models resulted in a significantly higher MT deposition and lower fine particle fraction (FPF) compared with the other MT models. In the case of FP-MDI, the three VCU models resulted in higher MT deposition and lower FPF compared with the USP induction port and AIT. Overall, the in vitro testing results for the suspension MDI were more sensitive to geometric differences of the MT models than those for the solution MDI. Our results suggest that in vitro characterization of MDI products can be influenced by many factors, including the type of formulation, the MT geometry, shape, internal space volume, and the material used to make the MT models.

Effects of Formulation Variables on Lung Dosimetry of Albuterol Sulfate Suspension and Beclomethasone Dipropionate Solution Metered Dose Inhalers.

The performance of pressurized metered dose inhalers (MDIs) is affected by formulation and device variables that impact delivered dose, aerodynamic particle size distribution, and consequently lung deposition and therapeutic effect. Specific formulation variables of relevance to two commercially available products-Proventil® HFA [albuterol sulfate (AS) suspension] and Qvar® [beclomethasone dipropionate (BDP) solution]-were evaluated to determine their influence on key performance attributes measured experimentally with in vitro cascade impaction studies. These commercial MDIs, utilized as model systems, provided mid-points for a design of experiments (DoE) plan to manufacture multiple suspension and solution MDI formulations. The experimental results were utilized as input variables in a computational dosimetry model to predict the effects of MDI formulation variables on lung deposition. For the BDP solution DoE MDIs, increased concentrations of surfactant oleic acid (0-2% w/w) increased lung deposition from 24 to 46%, whereas changes in concentration of the cosolvent ethanol (7-9% w/w) had no effect on lung deposition. For the AS suspension DoE MDIs, changes in oleic acid concentration (0.005-0.25% w/w) did not have significant effects on lung deposition, whereas lung deposition decreased from 48 to 26% as ethanol concentration increased from 2 to 20% w/w, and changes in micronized drug volumetric median particle size distribution (X50, 1.4-2.5 µm) increased deposition in the tracheobronchial airways from 5 to 11%. A direct correlation was observed between fine particle fraction and predicted lung deposition. These results demonstrate the value of using dosimetry models to further explore relationships between performance variables and lung deposition.

Preparation of drug-loaded small unilamellar liposomes and evaluation of their potential for the treatment of chronic respiratory diseases.

The aim of the present investigation was to evaluate the influence of liposome formulation on the ability of vesicles to penetrate a pathological mucus model obtained from COPD affected patients in order to assess the potential of such vesicles for the treatment of chronic respiratory diseases by inhalation. Therefore, Small Unilamellar Liposomes (PLAIN-LIPOSOMEs), Pluronic® F127-surface modified liposomes (PF-LIPOSOMEs) and PEG 2000PE-surface modified liposomes (PEG-LIPOSOMEs) were prepared using the micelle-to-vesicle transition (MVT) method and beclomethasone dipropionate (BDP) as model drug. The obtained liposomes showed diameters in the range of 40-65 nm, PDI values between 0.25 and 0.30 and surface electric charge essentially close to zero. The encapsulation efficiency was found to be dependent on the BDP/lipid ratio used and, furthermore, BDP-loaded liposomes were stable in size both at 37 °C and at 4 °C. All liposomes were not cytotoxic on H441 cell line as assessed by the MTT assay. The liposome uptake was evaluated through a cytofluorimetric assay that showed a non-significant reduction in the internalization of PEG-LIPOSOMEs as compared with PLAIN-LIPOSOMEs. The penetration studies of mucus from COPD patients showed that the PEG-LIPOSOMEs were the most mucus-penetrating vesicles after 27 h. In addition, PEG- and PF-LIPOSOMEs did not cause any effect on bronchoalveolar lavage fluid proteins after aerosol administration in the mouse. The results highlight that PEG-LIPOSOMEs show the most interesting features in terms of penetration through the pathologic sputum, uptake by airway epithelial cells and safety profile.

Limitations of high dose carrier based formulations.

PURPOSE: This study was performed to investigate how increasing the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) content within a formulation affects the dispersion of particles and the aerosol performance efficiency of a carrier based dry powder inhalable (DPI) formulation, using a custom dry powder inhaler (DPI) development rig. METHODS: Five formulations with varying concentrations of API beclomethasone dipropionate (BDP) between 1% and 30% (w/w) were formulated as a multi-component carrier system containing coarse lactose and fine lactose with magnesium stearate. The morphology of the formulation and each component were investigated using scanning electron micrographs while the particle size was measured by laser diffraction. The aerosol performance, in terms of aerodynamic diameter, was assessed using the British pharmacopeia Apparatus E cascade impactor (Next generation impactor). Chemical analysis of the API was observed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). RESULTS: Increasing the concentration of BDP in the blend resulted in increasing numbers and size of individual agglomerates and densely packed BDP multi-layers on the surface of the lactose carrier. BDP present within the multi-layer did not disperse as individual primary particles but as dense agglomerates, which led to a decrease in aerosol performance and increased percentage of BDP deposition within the Apparatus E induction port and pre-separator. CONCLUSION: As the BDP concentration in the blends increases, aerosol performance of the formulation decreases, in an inversely proportional manner. Concurrently, the percentage of API deposition in the induction port and pre-separator could also be linked to the amount of micronized particles (BDP and Micronized composite carrier) present in the formulation. The effect of such dose increase on the behaviour of aerosol dispersion was investigated to gain greater insight in the development and optimisation of higher dosed carrier-based formulations.

Proliposome tablets manufactured using a slurry-driven lipid-enriched powders: Development, characterization and stability evaluation.

Proliposome powders were prepared via a slurry method using sorbitol or D-mannitol as carbohydrate carriers in 1:10 or 1:15 w/w lipid phase to carrier ratios. Soya phosphatidylcholine (SPC) and cholesterol were employed as a lipid phase and Beclometasone dipropionate (BDP) was incorporated as a model drug. Direct compaction using a Minipress was applied on the lipid-enriched powder in order to manufacture proliposome tablets. Sorbitol-based proliposome tablets in a 1:15 w/w ratio were found to be the best formulation as it exhibited excellent powder flowability with an angle of repose of 25.62 ±â€¯1.08°, and when compacted the resultant tablets had low friability (0.20 ±â€¯0.03%), appropriate hardness (crushing strength) (120.67 ±â€¯12.04 N), short disintegration time (5.85 ±â€¯0.66 min), and appropriate weight uniformity. Moreover, upon hydration into liposomes, the entrapment efficiency for sorbitol formulations in both 1:10 and 1:15 lipid to carrier ratios were significantly higher (53.82 ±â€¯6.42% and 57.43 ±â€¯9.12%) than D-mannitol formulations (39.90 ±â€¯4.30% and 35.22 ±â€¯6.50%), respectively. Extended stability testing was conducted for 18 months, at three different temperature conditions (Fridge Temperature (FT; 6 °C), Room Temperature (RT; 22 °C) and High Temperature (HT; 40 °C)) for sorbitol-based proliposome tablets (1:15 w/w ratio). Volume median diameter (VMD) and zeta potential significantly changed from 5.90 ±â€¯0.70 µm to 14.79 ±â€¯0.79 µm and from -3.08 ±â€¯0.26 mV to -11.97 ±â€¯0.26 mV respectively at month 18, when samples were stored under HT conditions. Moreover, the entrapment efficiency of BDP decreased from 57.43 ±â€¯9.12% to 17.93 ±â€¯5.37% following 18 months storage under HT conditions. Overall, in this study for the first time, proliposome tablets were manufactured and thoroughly characterized, and sorbitol showed to be a promising carrier.

Developing an exogenous pulmonary surfactant-glucocorticoids association: Effect of corticoid concentration on the biophysical properties of the surfactant.

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are used to treat lung disease. GCs incorporated in an exogenous pulmonary surfactant (EPS) could be an alternative management to improve drug delivery avoiding side effects. In the development of these pharmaceutical products, it is important to know the maximum amount of GC that can be incorporated and if increasing quantities of GCs alter EPS biophysical properties. Formulations containing EPS and beclomethasone, budesonide or fluticasone were analyzed (PL 10mg/ml; GC 1-2mg/ml). The microstructure was evaluated by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, GCs incorporated were determined by UV absorption and polarized light microscopy and surfactant activity with pulsating bubble surfactometer. We found that GCs have a ceiling of incorporation of around 10wt%, and that the GC not incorporated remains as crystals in the aqueous phase without altering the biophysical properties of the surfactant. This fact is important, because the greater the proportion of GC that EPS can carry, the better the efficiency of this pulmonary GC system.

The efficacy of extrafine beclomethasone dipropionate-formoterol fumarate in COPD patients who are not "frequent exacerbators": a post hoc analysis of the FORWARD study.

The GOLD 2017 strategy document recommends that the pharmacological management of COPD patients be based on the risk of future exacerbations and the severity of symptoms. A threshold of two moderate exacerbations or one hospitalization is used to define high-risk patients. The FORWARD study was a randomized, double-blind, parallel-group trial that compared 48 weeks' treatment with extrafine beclomethasone dipropionate plus formoterol fumarate (BDP-FF) versus FF in severe COPD patients with a history of one or more exacerbations in the previous year. The new GOLD 2017 recommendations mean that many patients in the FORWARD study are now reclassified as GOLD B. We conducted a post hoc analysis of the FORWARD study, in order to investigate the effects of extrafine BDP/FF in patients with one exacerbation in the previous year, focusing on those categorized as group B using the GOLD 2017 definition. The analysis showed a 35% reduction in exacerbation rate with an inhaled corticosteroid (ICS) + long-acting ß-agonist (LABA) versus LABA. We propose that ICS-LABA treatment is a therapeutic option for COPD patients with one exacerbation in the previous year.

Experimental and computational study of the effect of breath-actuated mechanism built in the NEXThaler® dry powder inhaler.

The breath-actuated mechanism (BAM) is a mechanical unit included in NEXThaler® with the role of delaying the emission of the drug until the inhalation flow rate of the patient is sufficiently high to detach the drug particles from their carriers. The main objective of this work was to analyse the effect of the presence of BAM on the size distribution of the emitted drug and its airway deposition efficiency and distribution. Study of the hygroscopic growth of the emitted drug particles and its effect on the deposition was another goal of this study. Size distributions of Foster® NEXThaler® drug particles emitted by dry powder inhalers with and without BAM have been measured by a Next Generation Impactor. Three characteristic inhalation profiles of asthmatic patients (low, moderate and high flow rates) were used for both experimental and modelling purposes. Particle hygroscopic growth was determined by a new method, where experimental measurements are combined with simulations. Upper airway and lung deposition fractions were computed assuming 5s and 10s breath-hold times. By the inclusion of BAM the fine particle fraction of the steroid component increased from 24 to 30% to 47-51%, while that of bronchodilator from 25-34% to 52-55%. The predicted upper airway steroid and bronchodilator doses decreased from about 60% to 35-40% due to BAM. At the same time, predicted lung doses increased from about 20%-35% (steroid) and from 22% to 38% (bronchodilator) for the moderate flow profile and from about 25% to 40% (steroid) and from 29% to 47% (bronchodilator) for the high inhalation flow profile. Although BDP and FF upper airway doses decreased by a factor of about two when BAM was present, lung doses of both components were about the same in the BAM and no-BAM configurations at the weakest flow profile. However, lung dose increased by 2-3% even for this profile when hygroscopic growth was taken into account. In conclusion, the NEXThaler® BAM mechanism is a unique feature enabling high emitted fine particle fraction and enhanced drug delivery to the lungs.

A Biocompatible Synthetic Lung Fluid Based on Human Respiratory Tract Lining Fluid Composition.

PURPOSE: To characterise a biorelevant simulated lung fluid (SLF) based on the composition of human respiratory tract lining fluid. SLF was compared to other media which have been utilized as lung fluid simulants in terms of fluid structure, biocompatibility and performance in inhalation biopharmaceutical assays. METHODS: The structure of SLF was investigated using cryo-transmission electron microscopy, photon correlation spectroscopy and Langmuir isotherms. Biocompatibility with A549 alveolar epithelial cells was determined by MTT assay, morphometric observations and transcriptomic analysis. Biopharmaceutical applicability was evaluated by measuring the solubility and dissolution of beclomethasone dipropionate (BDP) and fluticasone propionate (FP), in SLF. RESULTS: SLF exhibited a colloidal structure, possessing vesicles similar in nature to those found in lung fluid extracts. No adverse effect on A549 cells was apparent after exposure to the SLF for 24 h, although some metabolic changes were identified consistent with the change of culture medium to a more lung-like composition. The solubility and dissolution of BDP and FP in SLF were enhanced compared to Gamble's solution. CONCLUSION: The SLF reported herein constitutes a biorelevant synthetic simulant which is suitable to study biopharmaceutical properties of inhalation medicines such as those being proposed for an inhaled biopharmaceutics classification system.

Humidity affects the morphology of particles emitted from beclomethasone dipropionate pressurized metered dose inhalers.

The effects of propellant type, cosolvent content, and air humidity on the morphology and solid phase of the particles produced from solution pressurized metered dose inhalers containing the corticosteroid beclomethasone dipropionate were investigated. The active ingredient was dissolved in the HFA propellants 134a and 227ea with varying levels of the cosolvent ethanol and filled into pressurized metered dose inhalers. Inhalers were actuated into an evaporation chamber under controlled temperature and humidity conditions and sampled using a single nozzle, single stage inertial impactor. Particle morphology was assessed qualitatively using field emission scanning electron microscopy and focused ion beam-helium ion microscopy. Drug solid phase was assessed using Raman microscopy. The relative humidity of the air during inhaler actuation was found to have a strong effect on the particle morphology, with solid spheroidal particles produced in dry air and highly porous particles produced at higher humidity levels. Air humidification was found to have no effect on the solid phase of the drug particles, which was predominantly amorphous for all tested formulations. A critical level of air relative humidity was required to generate porous particles for each tested formulation. This critical relative humidity was found to depend on the amount of ethanol used in the inhaler, but not on the type of propellant utilized. The results indicate that under the right circumstances water vapor saturation followed by nucleated water condensation or ice deposition occurs during particle formation from evaporating propellant-cosolvent-BDP droplets. This finding reveals the importance of condensed water or ice as a templating agent for porosity when particle formation occurs at saturated conditions, with possible implications on the pharmacokinetics of solution pMDIs and potential applications in particle engineering for drug delivery.

Comparison of the cohesion-adhesion balance approach to colloidal probe atomic force microscopy and the measurement of Hansen partial solubility parameters by inverse gas chromatography for the prediction of dry powder inhalation performance.

The abilities of the cohesive-adhesive balance approach to atomic force microscopy (AFM) and the measurement of Hansen partial solubility parameters by inverse gas chromatography (IGC) to predict the performance of carrier-based dry powder inhaler (DPI) formulations were compared. Five model drugs (beclometasone dipropionate, budesonide, salbutamol sulphate, terbutaline sulphate and triamcinolone acetonide) and three model carriers (erythritol, α-lactose monohydrate and d-mannitol) were chosen, giving fifteen drug-carrier combinations. Comparison of the AFM and IGC interparticulate adhesion data suggested that they did not produce equivalent results. Comparison of the AFM data with the in vitro fine particle delivery of appropriate DPI formulations normalised to account for particle size differences revealed a previously observed pattern for the AFM measurements, with a slightly cohesive AFM CAB ratio being associated with the highest fine particle fraction. However, no consistent relationship between formulation performance and the IGC data was observed. The results as a whole highlight the complexity of the many interacting variables that can affect the behaviour of DPIs and suggest that the prediction of their performance from a single measurement is unlikely to be successful in every case.

Drug permeation and cellular interaction of amino acid-coated drug combination powders for pulmonary delivery.

The effect of three amino acid coatings (L-leucine, L-valine and L-phenylalanine) on particle integrity, aerosolization properties, cellular interaction, cytocompatibility, and drug permeation properties of drug combination powder particles (beclomethasone dipropionate and salbutamol sulphate) for dry powder inhalation (DPI) was investigated. Particles with crystalline L-leucine coating resulted in intact separated particles, with crystalline L-valine coating in slightly sintered particles and with amorphous L-phenylalanine coating in strongly fused particles. The permeation of beclomethasone dipropionate across a Calu-3 differentiated cell monolayer was increased when compared with its physical mixture. Drug crystal formation was also observed on the Calu-3 cell monolayer. The L-leucine coated particles were further investigated for cytocompatibility in three human pulmonary (Calu-3, A549 and BEAS-2B) and one human macrophage (THP-1) cell lines, where they showed excellent tolerability. The l-leucine coated particles were also examined for their ability to elicit reactive oxygen species in pulmonary BEAS-2B and macrophage THP-1 cell lines. The study showed the influence of the amino acid coatings for particle formation and performance and their feasibility for combination therapy for pulmonary delivery.

Dispersibility of lactose fines as compared to API in dry powders for inhalation.

This work investigates the dispersion performance of fine lactose particles as function of processing time, and compares it to the API, using Beclomethasone Dipropionate (BDP) as model API. The total load of fine particles is kept constant in the formulations while the proportions of API and lactose fines are varied. Fine particle assessment demonstrates that the lactose fines have higher dispersibility than the API. For standard formulations, processing time has a limited effect on the Fine Particle Fraction (FPF). For formulations containing magnesium stearate (MgSt), FPF of BDP is heavily influenced by processing time, with an initial increase, followed by a decrease at longer mixing times. An equation modeling the observed behavior is presented. Surprisingly, the dispersibility of the lactose fines present in the same formulation remains unaffected by mixing time. Magnesium analysis demonstrates that MgSt is transferred to the fine particles during the mixing process, thus lubrication both BDP and lactose fines, which leads to an increased FPF. Dry particle sizing of the formulations reveals a loss of fine particles at longer mixing times. Incorporation of fine particles into the carrier surfaces is believed to be behind this, and is hence a mechanism of importance as regards the dispersion performance of dry powders for inhalation.