Synthesis and characterization of novel combretastatin analogues of 1,1-diaryl vinyl sulfones, with antiproliferative potential via in-silico and in-vitro studies.

Novel 1,1-diaryl vinyl-sulfones analogues of combretastatin CA-4 were synthesized via Suzuki-Miyaura coupling method and screened for in-vitro antiproliferative activity against four human cancer cell lines: MDA-MB 231(breast cancer), HeLa (cervical cancer), A549 (lung cancer), and IMR-32 (neuroblast cancer), along with a normal cell line HEK-293 (human embryonic kidney cell) by employing 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The compounds synthesised had better cytotoxicity against the A549 and IMR-32 cell lines compared to HeLa and MDA-MB-231 cell lines. The synthesized compounds also showed significant activity on MDA-MB-231 cancer cell line with IC50 of 9.85-23.94 µM, and on HeLa cancer cell line with IC50 of 8.39-11.70 µM relative to doxorubicin having IC50 values 0.89 and 1.68 µM respectively for MDA-MB-231 and HeLa cell lines. All the synthesized compounds were not toxic to the growth of normal cells, HEK-293. They appear to have a higher binding affinity for the target protein, tubulin, PDB ID = 5LYJ (beta chain), relative to the reference compounds, CA4 (- 7.1 kcal/mol) and doxorubicin (- 7.2 kcal/mol) except for 4E, 4M, 4N and 4O. The high binding affinity for beta-tubulin did not translate into enhanced cytotoxicity but the compounds (4G, 4I, 4J, 4M, 4N, and 4R, all having halogen substituents) that have a higher cell permeability (as predicted in-silico) demonstrated an optimum cytotoxicity against the tested cell lines in an almost uniform manner for all tested cell lines. The in-silico study provided insight into the role that cell permeability plays in enhancing the cytotoxicity of this class of compounds and as potential antiproliferative agents.

Isolation, synthesis, and biological activities of a bibenzyl from Empetrum nigrum var. japonicum.

4-(2-Hydroxyphenethyl)-2,6-dimethoxyphenol, a bibenzyl, was isolated from the leaves of Empetrum nigrum var. japonicum, collected from Mount Tateyama. Japanese rock ptarmigans frequently eat the leaves and fruits of this plant. The structure of the bibenzyl was confirmed by NMR spectroscopic analysis and fully characterized. A synthesis of this compound was accomplished by coupling 2-hydroxyphenylacetic acid with syringaldehyde, decarboxylation of the resultant isoaurones, and hydrogenation of the double bond in the corresponding stilbene. This compound displayed cytotoxic activity against human cancer cells (HCT116 and Hela cells) and leukemia cells (HL-60 cells). The present study suggests that this plant serves as a source of biologically active natural products. Also, our findings provide information on the secondary metabolites in the diet of Japanese rock ptarmigans.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of novel vicinal diaryl-substituted 1H-Pyrazole analogues of combretastatin A-4 as highly potent tubulin polymerization inhibitors.

A series of 3-(3',4',5'-trimethoxyphenyl)-4-substituted 1H-pyrazole and their related 3-aryl-4-(3',4',5'-trimethoxyphenyl)-1-H-pyrazole regioisomeric derivatives, prepared as cis-rigidified combretastatin A-4 (CA-4) analogues, were synthesized and evaluated for their in vitro antiproliferative against six different cancer cell lines and, for selected highly active compounds, inhibitory effects on tubulin polymerization, cell cycle effects and in vivo potency. We retained the 3',4',5'-trimethoxyphenyl moiety as ring A throughout the present investigation, and a structure-activity relationship (SAR) information was obtained by adding electron-withdrawing (OCF3, CF3) or electron-releasing (alkyl and alkoxy) groups on the second aryl ring, corresponding to the B-ring of CA-4, either at the 3- or 4-position of the pyrazole nucleus. In addition, the B-ring was replaced with a benzo[b]thien-2-yl moiety. For many of the compounds, their activity was greater than, or comparable with, that of CA-4. Maximal activity was observed with the two regioisomeric derivatives characterized by the presence of a 4-ethoxyphenyl and a 3',4',5'-trimethoxyphenyl group at the C-3 and C-4 positions, and vice versa, of the 1H-pyrazole ring. The data showed that the 3',4',5'-trimethoxyphenyl moiety can be moved from the 3- to the 4-position of the 1H-pyrazole ring without significantly affecting antiproliferative activity. The most active derivatives bound to the colchicine site of tubulin and inhibited tubulin polymerization at submicromolar concentrations. In vivo experiments, on an orthotopic murine mammary tumor, revealed that 4c inhibited tumor growth even at low concentrations (5 mg/kg) compared to CA-4P (30 mg/kg).

Novel multitarget inhibitors with antiangiogenic and immunomodulator properties.

By means of docking studies, seventeen compounds T.1-T17 have been designed and evaluated as multitarget inhibitors of VEGFR-2 and PD-L1 proteins in order to overcome resistance phenomena offered by cancer. All these designed molecules display a urea moiety as a common structural feature and eight of them (T.1-T8) further contain a 1,2,3-triazol moiety. The antiproliferative activity of these molecules on several tumor cell lines (HT-29, MCF-7, HeLa, A549, HL-60), on the endothelial cell line HMEC-1 and on the non-tumor cell line HEK-293 has been determined. The urea derivatives were also evaluated for their antiangiogenic properties, whereby their ability to inhibit tubulogenesis and kinase activity employing flow cytometry, ELISA, immunofluorescence and western blot techniques was measured. In addition, these techniques were also employed to investigate the immunomodulator action of the synthetic compounds on the inhibition of PD-L1 and c-Myc proteins. Compound T.2, 1-(3-chlorophenyl)-3-(2-(4-(4-methoxybenzyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-1-yl)ethyl)urea, has shown similar results to sorafenib in both down-regulation of VEGFR-2 and inhibition of the kinase activity of this receptor. Furthermore, compound T.14, (E)-1-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(3-(4-methoxystyryl)phenyl)urea, improves the effect of T.2 as regards tube formation of endothelial cells and inhibition of VEGFR-2 tyrosine kinase activity. In addition, T.14 improves the effect of the experimental drug BMS-8 in the inhibition of PD-L1 and c-Myc proteins.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of pyrimidine bridged combretastatin derivatives as potential anticancer agents and mechanistic studies.

A number of pyrimidine bridged combretastatin derivatives were designed, synthesized and evaluated for anticancer activities against breast cancer (MCF-7) and lung cancer (A549) cell lines using MTT assays. Most of the synthesized compounds displayed good anticancer activity with IC50 values in low micro-molar range. Compounds 4a and 4p were found most potent in the series with IC50 values of 4.67 µM & 3.38 µM and 4.63 µM & 3.71 µM against MCF7 and A549 cancer cell lines, respectively. Biological evaluation of these compounds showed that selective cancer cell toxicity (in vitro using human lung and breast cancer cell lines) might be due to the inhibition of antioxidant enzymes instigating elevated ROS levels which triggers intrinsic apoptotic pathways. These compounds were found nontoxic to the normal human primary cells. Compound 4a, was found to be competitive inhibitor of colchicine and in the tubulin binding assay it showed tubulin polymerization inhibition potential comparable to colchicine. The molecular modeling studies also showed that the synthesized compounds fit well in the colchicine-binding pocket.

Synthesis, antiproliferative, anti-tubulin activity, and docking study of new 1,2,4-triazoles as potential combretastatin analogues.

Combretastatin A4 (CA4) is a natural product characterized by a powerful inhibition of tubulin polymerization and a potential anticancer activity. However, therapeutic application of CA4 is substantially hindered due to geometric isomerization. In the current study, new cis-restricted Combretastatin A4 analogues containing 1,2,4-triazle in place of the olefinic bond were designed and synthesized. The synthesized compounds were evaluated for their in vitro antiproliferative activity in human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 and leukemia HL-60 cell lines using MTT assay. Moreover, fourteen compounds were selected and tested for their antiproliferative activity by the National Cancer Institute. Some of the tested compounds showed moderate activity against sixty cell lines. In vitro tubulin polymerization inhibitory activity was evaluated on HepG2 cells. The assay revealed that 6a showed a remarkable tubulin inhibition compared to CA4. Moreover, the cell cycle analysis revealed significant G2/M cell cycle arrest of the analogue 6c in HepG2 cells. Molecular docking combined with AMBER-based molecular mechanical minimization results showed several noncovalent interactions, including van der Waals and hydrogen-bonding with several amino acids within the colchicine binding site of ß-subunit of tubulin.

Novel Selective Estrogen Receptor Ligand Conjugates Incorporating Endoxifen-Combretastatin and Cyclofenil-Combretastatin Hybrid Scaffolds: Synthesis and Biochemical Evaluation.

Nuclear receptors such as the estrogen receptors (ERα and ERß) modulate the effects of the estrogen hormones and are important targets for design of innovative chemotherapeutic agents for diseases such as breast cancer and osteoporosis. Conjugate and bifunctional compounds which incorporate an ER ligand offer a useful method of delivering cytotoxic drugs to tissue sites such as breast cancers which express ERs. A series of novel conjugate molecules incorporating both the ER ligands endoxifen and cyclofenil-endoxifen hybrids covalently linked to the antimitotic and tubulin targeting agent combretastatin A-4 were synthesised and evaluated as ER ligands. A number of these compounds demonstrated pro-apoptotic effects, with potent antiproliferative activity in ER-positive MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines and low cytotoxicity. These conjugates displayed binding affinity towards ERα and ERß isoforms at nanomolar concentrations e.g., the cyclofenil-amide compound 13e is a promising lead compound of a clinically relevant ER conjugate with IC50 in MCF-7 cells of 187 nM, and binding affinity to ERα (IC50 = 19 nM) and ERß (IC50 = 229 nM) while the endoxifen conjugate 16b demonstrates antiproliferative activity in MCF-7 cells (IC50 = 5.7 nM) and binding affinity to ERα (IC50 = 15 nM) and ERß (IC50 = 115 nM). The ER binding effects are rationalised in a molecular modelling study in which the disruption of the ER helix-12 in the presence of compounds 11e, 13e and 16b is presented These conjugate compounds have potential application for further development as antineoplastic agents in the treatment of ER positive breast cancers.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of nitrogen-containing macrocyclic bisbibenzyl derivatives as potent anticancer agents by targeting the lysosome.

A series of novel nitrogen-containing macrocyclic bisbibenzyl derivatives was designed, synthesized, and evaluated for antiproliferative activity against three anthropic cancer cell lines. Among these novel molecules, the tri-O-alkylated compound 18a displayed the most potent anticancer activity against the A549, MCF-7, and k562 cancer cell lines, with IC50 values of 0.51, 0.23, and 0.19 µM, respectively, which were obviously superior to those of the parent compound riccardin D, and were 3-10-fold better than those of the clinical used drug ADR. The bis-Mannich derivative 11b also exhibited significantly enhanced antiproliferative potency, with submicromolar IC50 values. Structure-activity relationship analyses of these newly synthesized compounds were also performed. Mechanistic studies indicated that these compounds could target the lysosome to induce lysosomal membrane permeabilization, and could also induce cell death that displayed features characteristic of both apoptosis and necrosis.

Design, synthesis, biological evaluation and molecular modeling study of novel macrocyclic bisbibenzyl analogues as antitubulin agents.

A series of macrocyclic bisbibenzyls with novel skeletons was designed, synthesized, and evaluated for antiproliferative activity against five anthropic cancer cell lines. Among these novel molecules, compound 47 displayed excellent anticancer activity against HeLa, k562, HCC1428, HT29 and PC-3/Doc cell lines, with IC50 values ranging from of 1.51 µM-5.51 µM, which were more potent than the parent compound, marchantin C. Compounds 44 and 55 with novel bisbibenzyl skeletons also exhibited significantly improved antiproliferative potency. Structure-activity relationship (SAR) analyses of these synthesized compounds were also performed. In addition, compound 47 effectively inhibited tubulin polymerization in HCC1482 cells and induced HCC1482 cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase in a concentration-dependent manner. The binding mode of compound 47 to tubulin was also investigated utilizing a molecular docking study. In conclusion, the present study discovered several potent antitubulin compounds with novel bisbibenzyl skeletons, and our systematic studies revealed new scaffolds that target tubulin and mitosis and provide progress towards the discovery of novel antitumor drugs discovery.

Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of a New Series of Biphenyl/Bibenzyl Derivatives Functioning as Dual Inhibitors of Acetylcholinesterase and Butyrylcholinesterase.

Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common form of dementia in adults, is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder of the brain characterized by loss of memory and steady deterioration of cognition. Here, a series of symmetrical molecules containing biphenyl/bibenzyl scaffolds (12-36) were designed, synthesized, and evaluated for their ability to inhibit both acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE). A biological evaluation showed that most of these biphenyl derivatives were potent AChE and BuChE inhibitors. Among them, compound 15 displayed the greatest ability to inhibit BuChE (IC50 = 0.74 µM) and was also a good AChE inhibitor (IC50 = 1.18 µM). Compound 19 was not only a potent AChE inhibitor (IC50 = 0.096 µM), but also a mild BuChE inhibitor (IC50 =1.25 µM). Overall, these results suggested that compound 19 may be a promising agent in the treatment of AD.

Synthesis and cytotoxic activity of certain trisubstituted azetidin-2-one derivatives as a cis-restricted combretastatin A-4 analogues.

Novel series of 1,3,4-trisubstituted azetidin-2-one derivatives 8a-p were synthesized and proposed as cytotoxic agents acting via inhibition of tubulin at the colchicine binding site. The design of the target compounds was based upon modification in the structure of the vascular targeting agent combretastatin A-4 (CA-4). The cis double bond linker in CA-4 was replaced with the azetidin-2-one ring aiming to prevent the cis/trans isomerization that suppresses the activity of CA-4, thereby enhancing its antiproliferative activity. All new compounds were investigated in vitro against MCF-7 and HCT-116 cell lines. The inhibition of tubulin polymerization by four most potent compounds 8g, 8j, 8n and 8o was also evaluated. The synthesis of the final targets was achieved adopting Staudinger reaction. Molecular modeling studies were performed to rationalize the biological results.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of cis-restricted triazole/tetrazole mimics of combretastatin-benzothiazole hybrids as tubulin polymerization inhibitors and apoptosis inducers.

A series of colchicine site binding tubulin inhibitors were synthesized by the modification of the combretastatin pharmacophore. The ring B was replaced by the pharmacologically relevant benzothiazole scaffolds, and the cis configuration of the olefinic bond was restricted by the incorporation of a triazole and tetrazole rings which is envisaged by the structural resemblance to a tubulin inhibitor like combretastatin (CA-4). These compounds were evaluated for their antiproliferative activity on selected cancer cell lines and an insight in the structure activity relationship was developed. The most potent compounds (9a and 9b) demonstrated an antiproliferative effect comparable to that of CA-4. Mitotic cell cycle arrest in G2/M phase revealed the disruption of microtubule dynamics that was confirmed by tubulin polymerization assays and immunocytochemistry studies at the cellular level. Western blot analysis revealed that these compounds accumulate more tubulin in the soluble fraction. The colchicine competitive binding assay and the molecular docking studies suggested that the binding of these mimics at the colchicine site of the tubulin is similar to that of CA-4. Moreover, the triggering of apoptotic cell death after mitotic arrest was investigated by studying their effect by Hoechst staining, Annexin-V-FITC assay, mitochondrial membrane potential, ROS generation and caspase-3 activation.

Synthesis, antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic activity of 2-phenylindoles.

Breast cancer is the second most common cancer worldwide after lung cancer with the vast majority of early stage breast cancers being hormone-dependent. One of the major therapeutic advances in the clinical treatment of breast cancer has been the introduction of selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs). We describe the design and synthesis of novel SERM type ligands based on the 2-arylindole scaffold to selectively target the estrogen receptor in hormone dependent breast cancers. Some of these novel compounds are designed as bisindole type structures, while others are conjugated to a cytotoxic agent based on combretastatin A4 (CA4) which is a potent inhibitor of tubulin polymerisation. The indole compounds synthesised within this project such as 31 and 86 demonstrate estrogen receptor (ER) binding and strong antiproliferative activity in the ER positive MCF-7 breast cancer cell line with IC50 values of 2.71µM and 1.86µM respectively. These active compounds induce apoptotic activity in MCF-7 cells with minimal effects on normal peripheral blood cells. Their strong anti-cancer effect is likely mediated by the presence of two ER binding ligands for 31 and an ER binding ligand combined with a cytotoxic agent for 86.

Ultrasound-promoted two-step synthesis of 3-arylselenylindoles and 3-arylthioindoles as novel combretastatin A-4 analogues.

A series of 3-(3'-hydroxy-4'-methoxyphenyl)selenyl-5,6,7-trimethoxy-1H-indoles and 3-(3'-hydroxy-4'-methoxyphenyl)thio-5,6,7-trimethoxy-1H-indoles were obtained as a new class of combretastatin A-4 (CA-4) analogues via a convenient ultrasound (US)-assisted two-step process involving 3-selenenylation/sulfenylation followed by O-deallylation. With the assistance of US irradiation, both the reaction rates and yields of selenenylation, sulfenylation and O-deallylation could be significantly improved. A comparison of the reaction rates of O-deallylation and ester reduction demonstrated that O-deallylation was more sensitive to US irradiation. Finally, these products were evaluated for their antiproliferative activities, and most of them showed moderate to potent activities against three human cancer cell lines in vitro.

Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Novel Gigantol Derivatives as Potential Agents in Prevention of Diabetic Cataract.

As a continuation of our efforts directed towards the development of natural anti-diabetic cataract agents, gigantol was isolated from Herba dendrobii and was found to inhibit both aldose reductase (AR) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) activity, which play a significant role in the development and progression of diabetic cataracts. To improve its bioefficacy and facilitate use as a therapeutic agent, gigantol (compound 14f) and a series of novel analogs were designed and synthesized. Analogs were formulated to have different substituents on the phenyl ring (compounds 4, 5, 8, 14a-e), substitute the phenyl ring with a larger steric hindrance ring (compounds 10, 17c) or modify the carbon chain (compounds 17a, 17b, 21, 23, 25). All of the analogs were tested for their effect on AR and iNOS activities and on D-galactose-induced apoptosis in cultured human lens epithelial cells. Compounds 5, 10, 14a, 14b, 14d, 14e, 14f, 17b, 17c, 23, and 25 inhibited AR activity, with IC50 values ranging from 5.02 to 288.8 µM. Compounds 5, 10, 14b, and 14f inhibited iNOS activity with IC50 ranging from 432.6 to 1188.7 µM. Compounds 5, 8, 10, 14b, 14f, and 17c protected the cells from D-galactose induced apoptosis with viability ranging from 55.2 to 76.26%. Of gigantol and its analogs, compound 10 showed the greatest bioefficacy and is warranted to be developed as a therapeutic agent for diabetic cataracts.

Anti-MRSA activity of isoplagiochin-type macrocyclic bis(bibenzyl)s is mediated through cell membrane damage.

We synthesized three geometrical isomers of a macrocyclic bis(bibenzyl) based on isoplagiochin, a natural product isolated from bryophytes, and evaluated their antibacterial activity towards methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (anti-MRSA activity). The isomer containing a 1,4-linked ring (5) showed only weak activity, whereas the isomers containing a 1,3-linked (6) or 1,2-linked (7) C ring showed potent anti-MRSA activity. Molecular dynamics calculations indicated that these differences are probably due to differences in the conformational flexibility of the macrocyclic ring; the active compounds 6 and 7 were more rigid than 5. In order to understand the action mechanism of anti-MRSA activity, we investigated the cellular flux of a fluorescent DNA-binder, ethidium bromide (EtBr), in the presence and absence of these macrocycles. The active compound 6 increased the levels of EtBr inflow and outflow in S. aureus cells, as did our potent anti-MRSA riccardin derivative (4), indicating that these compounds increased the permeability of the cytoplasmic membrane. Inactive 5 had no effect on EtBr inflow or outflow. Furthermore, compound 6 abrogated the normal intracellular concentration gradients of Na(+) and K(+) in S. aureus cells, increasing the intracellular Na(+) concentration and decreasing the K(+) concentration, while 5 had no such effect. These results indicate that anti-MRSA-active macrocyclic bis(bibenzyl) derivatives directly damage the gram-positive bacterial membrane, resulting in increased permeability.

Anti-trypanosomal cadinanes synthesized by transannular cyclization of the natural sesquiterpene lactone nobilin.

Acid-catalyzed transannular cyclization of the germacrene-type sesquiterpene lactone nobilin 1 was investigated with the aim of obtaining new anti-trypanosomal cadinane derivatives. The reaction was regiospecific in all tested reaction conditions. Compounds were fully characterized by spectroscopic and computational methods, and the anti-trypanosomal activity was evaluated and compared to nobilin (IC50 3.19±1.69µM). The tricyclic derivative 11 showed most potent in vitro activity against Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense bloodstream forms (IC50 0.46±0.01µM). Acid-catalyzed transannular cyclization of natural cyclodecadienes is an efficient strategy to generate new natural product derivatives with anti-protozoal activity.

Microwave-assisted synthesis and biological evaluation of 3,4-diaryl maleic anhydride/N-substituted maleimide derivatives as combretastatin A-4 analogues.

A series of new CA-4 analogues bearing maleic anhydride/N-substituted maleimide moiety were synthesized via a microwave-assisted process. They were evaluated for the anti-proliferative activities against three tumor cell lines (SGC-7901, HT-1080 and KB). Most compounds showed moderate potencies in micromolar range, with the most promising analogue 6f showing active at submicromolar concentration against HT-1080 cancer cells which was selected to investigate the antitumor mechanisms. In addition, molecular docking studies within the colchicine binding site of tubulin were also in good agreement with the tubulin polymerization inhibitory data and provided a basis for further structure-guided design of novel CA-4 analogues.

Synthesis and In-Vitro Cytotoxicity of (E)-N,2,3-Triarylacrylamide Derivatives as Analogs of Combretastatin A-4.

A new series of (E)-N,2,3-triarylacrylamide derivatives were designed and synthesized as potent anticancer agents. Cytotoxicity of the 26 target compounds was evaluated in vitro against six cancer cell lines (HCT116, A549, MDA-MB-468, HepG2, SKNMC and SK-OV-3) by Sulforhodamine B colorimetric assay. The most promising compound, 4h, was as potent as the reference drug cisplatin (DDP). Preliminary structure-activity relationship (SAR) data provided guidance for further design and discovery of (E)- N,2,3-triarylacrylamide scaffold anticancer agents.

Cytotoxicity studies of novel combretastatin and pterostilbene derivatives.

We synthesised seven 2-aminestilbenes with methoxy substitents in reactions of dinitrostilbenes with sodium azide. In order to study the positioning of the nitro groups, the optimum structure of obtained stilbenes using the DFT B3LYP/6-311++G(2d,p) method was calculated. Very interesting aspect of this regioselectivity reaction is the fact that in all substrates and synthetized compounds the nitro groups in position 2 were not coplanar whereas the para-nitro groups were coplanar with respect to the benzene ring. Due to unique features of stilbene derivatives, such as antitumor agents, we undertook the studies on the biological properties of new stilbene derivatives. Using five cancer cell lines, we investigated the effects of 2-aminestilbenes with methoxy substitents on cell growth.