Transcriptome-wide analysis of filarial extract-primed human monocytes reveal changes in LPS-induced PTX3 expression levels.

Filarial nematodes modulate immune responses in their host to enable their survival and mediate protective effects against autoimmunity and allergies. In this study, we examined the immunomodulatory capacity of extracts from the human pathogenic filaria Brugia malayi (BmA) on human monocyte responses in a transcriptome-wide manner to identify associated pathways and diseases. As previous transcriptome studies often observed quiescent responses of innate cells to filariae, the potential of BmA to alter LPS driven responses was investigated by analyzing >47.000 transcripts of monocytes from healthy male volunteers stimulated with BmA, Escherichia coli LPS or a sequential stimulation of both. In comparison to ~2200 differentially expressed genes in LPS-only stimulated monocytes, only a limited number of differentially expressed genes were identified upon BmA priming before LPS re-stimulation with only PTX3↓ reaching statistical significance after correcting for multiple testing. Nominal significant differences were reached for metallothioneins↑, MMP9↑, CXCL5/ENA-78↑, CXCL6/GCP-2↑, TNFRSF21↓, and CCL20/MIP3α↓ and were confirmed by qPCR or ELISA. Flow cytometric analysis of activation markers revealed a reduced LPS-induced expression of HLA-DR and CD86 on BmA-primed monocytes as well as a reduced apoptosis of BmA-stimulated monocytes. While our experimental design does not allow a stringent extrapolation of our results to the development of filarial pathology, several genes that were identified in BmA-primed monocytes had previously been associated with filarial pathology, supporting the need for further research.

Cloning, large-scale production and characterization of fusion protein (P-TUFT-ALT-2) of Brugian abundant larval transcript-2 with tuftsin in Pichia pastoris.

Lymphatic filariasis is a "disease of poor people" due to a large section of affected people with economic backwardness. Therefore, successful elimination of this disease requires a cost-effective prophylactic agent such as vaccine along with conventional drugs. The Abundant Larval Transcript-2 (BmALT-2) protein of Brugia malayi has been recognized as the most potential vaccine candidate. Tuftsin, a tetra-peptide immunopotentiator has already shown the enhanced immunogenicity of various vaccine antigens in earlier studies. This study deals with the development of tuft-alt-2 fusion construct and a suitable culture condition for its large-scale production in Pichia pastoris. The recombinant P. pastoris/tuft-alt-2 with 9-11 copies of the gene construct exhibited the highest expression level. The molecular weight of P-TUFT-ALT-2 was determined as 28 kDa in SDS-PAGE including 3 kDa due to glycosylation. The dry cell biomass was 57.4 gL-1 in the bioreactor. The P-TUFT-ALT-2 expression was measured as about 35 mg L-1, which was 102% higher than flask culture. The P-TUFT-ALT-2 produced the highest 65,000 IgG peak titer in Balb/c mice. Moreover, P-TUFT-ALT-2 exhibited about 9.46% higher splenocyte proliferation than E. coli expressed E-ALT-2 alone. The enhanced secreted production of P-TUFT-ALT-2 in bioreactor would step up its commercialization as an inexpensive commercial vaccine for human lymphatic filariasis.

Unique N-terminal extension domain of human asparaginyl-tRNA synthetase elicits CCR3-mediated chemokine activity.

Asparaginyl-tRNA synthetase (NRS) is not only essential in protein translation but also associated with autoimmune diseases. Particularly, patients with antibodies that recognize NRS often develop interstitial lung disease (ILD). However, the underlying mechanism of how NRS is recognized by immune cells and provokes inflammatory responses is not well-understood. Here, we found that the crystal structure of the unique N-terminal extension domain of human NRS (named as UNE-N, where -N denotes NRS) resembles that of the chemotactic N-terminal domain of NRS from a filarial nematode, Brugia malayi, which recruits and activates specific immune cells by interacting with CXC chemokine receptor 1 and 2. UNE-N induced migration of CC chemokine receptor 3 (CCR3)-expressing cells. The chemokine activity of UNE-N was significantly reduced by suppressing CCR3 expression with CCR3-targeting siRNA, and the loop3 region of UNE-N was shown to interact mainly with the extracellular domains of CCR3 in nuclear magnetic resonance perturbation experiments. Based on these results, evolutionarily acquired UNE-N elicits chemokine activities that would promote NRS-CCR3-mediated proinflammatory signaling in ILD.

Defining the target and the effect of imatinib on the filarial c-Abl homologue.

BACKGROUND: Previously we demonstrated the micro- and macrofilaricidal properties of imatinib in vitro. Here we use electron and multiphoton microscopy to define the target of imatinib in the adult and microfilarial stages of Brugia malayi and assess the effects of pharmacologically relevant levels of imatinib on the adult parasites. METHODS: After fixation of adult B. malayi males and females, sections were stained with polyclonal rabbit anti-c-Abl antibody (or isotype control) and imaged with multiphoton fluorescent microscopy. Microfilariae were fixed and labeled with rabbit anti-c-Abl IgG primary antibody followed by anti-rabbit gold conjugated secondary antibody and imaged using transmission electron microscopy (TEM; immunoEM). In addition, adult B. malayi males and females were exposed to 0 or 10µM of imatinib for 7 days following which they were prepared for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to assess the drug's effect on filarial ultrastructure. RESULTS: Fluorescent localization of anti-c-Abl antibody demonstrated widespread uptake in the adult filariae, but the most intense signal was seen in the reproductive organs, muscle, and intestine of both male and female worms. Fluorescence was significantly more intense in the early microfilarial stage (i.e. early morula) compared with later development stages (i.e. pretzel). Anti-c-Abl antibody in the microfilariae localized to the nuclei. Based on TEM assessment following imatinib exposure, imatinib appeared to be detrimental to embryogenesis in the adult female B. malayi. CONCLUSIONS: At pharmacologically achievable concentrations of imatinib, embryogenesis is impaired and possibly halted in adult filariae. Imatinib is likely a slow microfilaricide due to interference in intra-nuclear processes, which are slowly detrimental to the parasite and not immediately lethal, and thus may be used to lower the levels of L. loa microfilariae before they are treated within the context of conventional mass drug administration.

Role of sequence evolution and conformational dynamics in the substrate specificity and oligomerization mode of thymidylate kinases.

Thymidylate kinase (TMK) is a key enzyme for the synthesis of DNA, making it an important target for the development of anticancer, antibacterial, and antiparasitic drugs. TMK homologs exhibit significant variations in sequence, residue conformation, substrate specificity, and oligomerization mode. However, the influence of sequence evolution and conformational dynamics on its quaternary structure and function has not been studied before. Based on extensive sequence and structure analyses, our study detected several non-conserved residues which are linked by co-evolution and are implicated in the observed variations in flexibility, oligomeric assembly, and substrate specificity among the homologs. These lead to differences in the pattern of interactions at the active site in TMKs of different specificity. The method was further tested on TMK from Sulfolobus tokodaii (StTMK) which has substantial differences in sequence and structure compared to other TMKs. Our analyses pointed to a more flexible dTMP-binding site in StTMK compared to the other homologs. Binding assays proved that the protein can accommodate both purine and pyrimidine nucleotides at the dTMP binding site with comparable affinity. Additionally, the residues responsible for the narrow specificity of Brugia malayi TMK, whose three-dimensional structure is unavailable, were detected. Our study provides a residue-level understanding of the differences observed among TMK homologs in previous experiments. It also illustrates the correlation among sequence evolution, conformational dynamics, oligomerization mode, and substrate recognition in TMKs and detects co-evolving residues that affect binding, which should be taken into account while designing novel inhibitors.

Investigating the folding pathway and substrate induced conformational changes in B. malayi Guanylate kinase.

Guanylate kinase is one of the key enzymes in nucleotide biosynthesis. The study highlights the structural and functional properties of Brugia malayi Guanylate kinase (BmGK) in the presence of chemical denaturants. An inactive, partially unfolded, dimeric intermediate was observed at 1-2M urea while GdnCl unfolding showed monomer molten globule like intermediate at 0.8-1.0M. The results also illustrate the protective role of substrates in maintaining the integrity of the enzyme. The thermo stability of protein was found to be significantly enhanced in the presence of the substrates. Furthermore, binding of the substrates, GMP and ATP to BmGK changed its GdnCl induced unfolding pattern. Docking and molecular dynamic simulation performed for native BmGK, BmGK bound to GMP and GMP+ATP showed change in the fluctuation in the region between 130 and 150 residues. Arg134 lost its interaction with GMP and Arg145 interaction shifted to ATP after 40ns simulation upon binding of ATP to BmGK-GMP complex. We, thus, propose the importance of specific rearrangements contributed by binding of substrates which participate in the overall stability of the protein. The work here emphasizes on detailed biophysical characterization of BmGK along with the significant role of substrates in modulating the structural and functional properties of BmGK.

Therapeutic potential of the immunomodulatory proteins Wuchereria bancrofti L2 and Brugia malayi abundant larval transcript 2 against streptozotocin-induced type 1 diabetes in mice.

Epidemiological and experimental evidence has supported the concept of using helminths as alternative bio-therapeutic agents in the treatment of type 1 diabetes (T1D). In the current study, two filarial proteins, recombinant Wuchereria bancrofti L2 (rWbL2) and Brugia malayi abundant larval transcript 2 (rBmALT-2) have been investigated, individually and in combination, for their therapeutic potential in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced T1D. The rWbL2 and rBmALT-2 proteins, when administered individually or in combination, have resulted in lowering of the blood glucose levels and reducing the incidence of T1D in mice. In addition, these proteins have led to reduced lymphocytic infiltration and decreased islet damage and inflammation. The curative effect was found to be associated with the suppression of release of tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ), and increased production of interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5 and IL-10 cytokines by the splenocytes of the diabetic mice. Insulin-specific IgG1 and antigen-specific IgE antibodies were found to be elevated in the sera of mice treated with rWbL2 and rBmALT-2 proteins. From the findings in this study, it can be envisaged that both of these filarial immunomodulatory proteins have the potential to ameliorate T1D by altering the regulatory immune responses.

Yeast-Based High-Throughput Screens to Identify Novel Compounds Active against Brugia malayi.

BACKGROUND: Lymphatic filariasis is caused by the parasitic worms Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi or B. timori, which are transmitted via the bites from infected mosquitoes. Once in the human body, the parasites develop into adult worms in the lymphatic vessels, causing severe damage and swelling of the affected tissues. According to the World Health Organization, over 1.2 billion people in 58 countries are at risk of contracting lymphatic filariasis. Very few drugs are available to treat patients infected with these parasites, and these have low efficacy against the adult stages of the worms, which can live for 7-15 years in the human body. The requirement for annual treatment increases the risk of drug-resistant worms emerging, making it imperative to develop new drugs against these devastating diseases. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We have developed a yeast-based, high-throughput screening system whereby essential yeast genes are replaced with their filarial or human counterparts. These strains are labeled with different fluorescent proteins to allow the simultaneous monitoring of strains with parasite or human genes in competition, and hence the identification of compounds that inhibit the parasite target without affecting its human ortholog. We constructed yeast strains expressing eight different Brugia malayi drug targets (as well as seven of their human counterparts), and performed medium-throughput drug screens for compounds that specifically inhibit the parasite enzymes. Using the Malaria Box collection (400 compounds), we identified nine filarial specific inhibitors and confirmed the antifilarial activity of five of these using in vitro assays against Brugia pahangi. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: We were able to functionally complement yeast deletions with eight different Brugia malayi enzymes that represent potential drug targets. We demonstrated that our yeast-based screening platform is efficient in identifying compounds that can discriminate between human and filarial enzymes. Hence, we are confident that we can extend our efforts to the construction of strains with further filarial targets (in particular for those species that cannot be cultivated in the laboratory), and perform high-throughput drug screens to identify specific inhibitors of the parasite enzymes. By establishing synergistic collaborations with researchers working directly on different parasitic worms, we aim to aid antihelmintic drug development for both human and veterinary infections.

Brugia malayi Asparaginyl-tRNA Synthetase Stimulates Endothelial Cell Proliferation, Vasodilation and Angiogenesis.

A hallmark of chronic infection with lymphatic filarial parasites is the development of lymphatic disease which often results in permanent vasodilation and lymphedema, but all of the mechanisms by which filarial parasites induce pathology are not known. Prior work showed that the asparaginyl-tRNA synthetase (BmAsnRS) of Brugia malayi, an etiological agent of lymphatic filariasis, acts as a physiocrine that binds specifically to interleukin-8 (IL-8) chemokine receptors. Endothelial cells are one of the many cell types that express IL-8 receptors. IL-8 also has been reported previously to induce angiogenesis and vasodilation, however, the effect of BmAsnRS on endothelial cells has not been reported. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that BmAsnRS might produce physiological changes in endothelial by studying the in vitro effects of BmAsnRS using a human umbilical vein cell line EA.hy926 and six different endothelial cell assays. Our results demonstrated that BmAsnRS produces consistent and statistically significant effects on endothelial cells that are identical to the effects of VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor. This study supports the idea that new drugs or immunotherapies that counteract the adverse effects of parasite-derived physiocrines may prevent or ameliorate the vascular pathology observed in patients with lymphatic filariasis.

A Proteomic Analysis of the Body Wall, Digestive Tract, and Reproductive Tract of Brugia malayi.

Filarial worms are parasitic nematodes that cause devastating diseases such as lymphatic filariasis (LF) and onchocerciasis. Filariae are nematodes with complex anatomy including fully developed digestive tracts and reproductive organs. To better understand the basic biology of filarial parasites and to provide insights into drug targets and vaccine design, we conducted a proteomic analysis of different anatomic fractions of Brugia malayi, a causative agent of LF. Approximately 500 adult female B. malayi worms were dissected, and three anatomical fractions (body wall, digestive tract, and reproductive tract) were obtained. Proteins from each anatomical fraction were extracted, desalted, trypsinized, and analyzed by microcapillary reverse-phase liquid chromatography-tandem-mass spectrometry. In total, we identified 4,785 B. malayi proteins. While 1,894 were identified in all three anatomic fractions, 396 were positively identified only within the digestive tract, 114 only within the body wall, and 1,011 only within the reproductive tract. Gene set enrichment analysis revealed a bias for transporters to be present within the digestive tract, suggesting that the intestine of adult filariae is functional and important for nutrient uptake or waste removal. As expected, the body wall exhibited increased frequencies of cytoskeletal proteins, and the reproductive tract had increased frequencies of proteins involved in nuclear regulation and transcription. In assessing for possible vaccine candidates, we focused on proteins sequestered within the digestive tract, as these could possibly represent "hidden antigens" with low risk of prior allergic sensitization. We identified 106 proteins that are enriched in the digestive tract and are predicted to localize to the surface of cells in the the digestive tract. It is possible that some of these proteins are on the luminal surface and may be accessible by antibodies ingested by the worm. A subset of 27 of these proteins appear especially promising vaccine candidates as they contain significant non-cytoplasmic domains, only 1-2 transmembrane domains, and a high degree of homology to W. bancrofti and/or O. volvulus.

Brugia malayi cystatin therapeutically ameliorates dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice.

OBJECTIVE: Helminth immunomodulation in the host has been shown to have therapeutic implications in inflammatory bowel diseases. In this study we aimed to evaluate the therapeutic effect of Brugia malayi recombinant cystatin (rBmCys) in a dose-dependent manner on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis in mice. METHODS: The anti-inflammatory activity of rBmCys on mice peritoneal exudate cells was initially analyzed in vitro. BALB/c mice were fed with 5% DSS for 7 days to induce colitis. The colitis mice were treated intraperitoneally with rBmCys (10, 25 or 50 µg for the three different groups of mice) on days 1, 3 and 5 of the DSS administration. Disease severity was assessed by the disease activity index (DAI) and macroscopic and histopathological scores of colon and myeloperoxidase activity in colonic mucosa. Cytokine profiles were measured in sera and cultured splenocytes of treated mice followed by stimulation with rBmCys. RESULTS: rBmCys showed anti-inflammatory activity in vitro. Treatment of DSS-induced colitis with rBmCys in mice ameliorated the overall disease severity as reflected by a significant reduction in weight loss, the DAI, mucosal edema, colon damage and myeloperoxidase activity of the colonic mucosa. While the mRNA expressions of IFN-γ, TNF-α, interleukin (IL)-5, IL-6 and IL-17 were downregulated, IL-10 expression was upregulated in the splenocytes of colitis mice treated with rBmCys. The amelioration of DSS-induced colitis occurred in a dose-dependent manner. CONCLUSION: The results of this study indicate an anti-inflammatory potential of rBmCys and provide evidence for using this protein as a promising therapeutic agent in ulcerative colitis.

Protection against filarial infection by 45-49 kDa molecules of Brugia malayi via IFN-γ-mediated iNOS induction.

Nitric oxide (NO) mediated mechanisms have been implicated in killing of some life-stages of Brugia malayi/Wuchereria bancrofti and protect the host through type 1 responses and IFN-γ stimulated toxic mediators' release. However, the identity of NO stimulating molecules of the parasites is not known. Three predominantly NO-stimulating SDS-PAGE resolved fractions F8 (45.24-48.64 kDa), F11 (33.44-38.44 kDa) and F12 (28.44-33.44 kDa) from B. malayi were identified and their proteins were analyzed by 2-DE and MALDI-TOF/TOF. Tropomyosin, calponin and de novo peptides were identified by 2-DE and MALDI-TOF/TOF in F8 and immunization with F8 conferred most significant protection against L3-initiated infection in Mastomys coucha. Immunized animals showed upregulated F8-induced NO, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-10, TGF-ß release, cellular proliferative responses and specific IgG and IgG1. Anti-IFN-γ, anti-TNF-α, and anti-IL-1ß significantly reduced F8-mediated NO generation and iNOS induction at protein levels. Anti-IFN-γ treated cells showed maximum reduction (>74%) in NO generation suggesting a predominant role of IFN-γ in iNOS induction. In conclusion, the findings suggest that F8 which contains tropomyosin, calponin and de novo peptides protects the host via IFN-γ mediated iNOS induction and may hold promise as vaccine candidate(s). This is also the first report of identification of tropomyosin and calponin in B. malayi.

Wolbachia lipoproteins: abundance, localisation and serology of Wolbachia peptidoglycan associated lipoprotein and the Type IV Secretion System component, VirB6 from Brugia malayi and Aedes albopictus.

BACKGROUND: Lipoproteins are the major agonists of Wolbachia-dependent inflammatory pathogenesis in filariasis and a validated target for drug discovery. Here we characterise the abundance, localisation and serology of the Wolbachia lipoproteins: Wolbachia peptidoglycan associated lipoprotein and the Type IV Secretion System component, VirB6. METHODS: We used proteomics to confirm lipoprotein presence and relative abundance; fractionation, immunoblotting and confocal and electron immuno-microscopy for localisation and ELISA for serological analysis. RESULTS: Proteomic analysis of Brugia malayi adult female protein extracts confirmed the presence of two lipoproteins, previously predicted through bioinformatics: Wolbachia peptidoglycan associated lipoprotein (wBmPAL) and the Type IV Secretion System component, VirB6 (wBmVirB6). wBmPAL was among the most abundant Wolbachia proteins present in an extract of adult female worms with wBmVirB6 only detected at a much lower abundance. This differential abundance was reflected in the immunogold-labelling, which showed wBmPAL localised at numerous sites within the bacterial membranes, whereas wBmVirB6 was present as a single cluster on each bacterial cell and also located within the bacterial membranes. Immunoblotting of fractionated extracts confirmed the localisation of wBmPAL to membranes and its absence from cytosolic fractions of C6/36 mosquito cells infected with wAlbB. In whole worm mounts, antibody labelling of both lipoproteins were associated with Wolbachia. Serological analysis showed that both proteins were immunogenic and raised antibody responses in the majority of individuals infected with Wuchereria bancrofti. CONCLUSIONS: Two Wolbachia lipoproteins, wBmPAL and wBmVirB6, are present in extracts of Brugia malayi with wBmPAL among the most abundant of Wolbachia proteins. Both lipoproteins localised to bacterial membranes with wBmVirB6 present as a single cluster suggesting a single Type IV Secretory System on each Wolbachia cell.

In silico and in vitro studies on the protein-protein interactions between Brugia malayi immunomodulatory protein calreticulin and human C1q.

Filarial parasites modulate effective immune response of their host by releasing a variety of immunomodulatory molecules, which help in the long persistence of the parasite within the host. The present study was aimed to characterize an immunomodulatory protein of Brugia malayi and its interaction with the host immune component at the structural and functional level. Our findings showed that Brugia malayi Calreticulin (BmCRT) is responsible for the prevention of classical complement pathway activation via its interaction with the first component C1q of the human host. This was confirmed by inhibition of C1q dependent lysis of immunoglobulin-sensitized Red Blood Cells (S-RBCs). This is possibly the first report which predicts CRT-C1q interaction on the structural content of proteins to explain how BmCRT inhibits this pathway. The molecular docking of BmCRT-C1q complex indicated that C1qB chain (IgG/M and CRP binding sites on C1q) played a major role in the interaction with conserved and non-conserved regions of N and P domain of BmCRT. Out of 37 amino acids of BmCRT involved in the interaction, nine amino acids (Pro(126), Glu(132), His(147), Arg(151), His(153), Met(154), Lys(156), Ala(196) and Lys(212)) are absent in human CRT. Both ELISA and in silico analysis showed the significant role of Ca(+2) in BmCRT-HuC1q complex formation and deactivation of C1r2-C1s2. Molecular dynamics studies of BmCRT-HuC1q complex showed a deviation from ∼ 0.4 nm to ∼ 1.0 nm. CD analyses indicated that BmCRT is composed of 49.6% α helix, 9.6% ß sheet and 43.6% random coil. These findings provided valuable information on the architecture and chemistry of BmCRT-C1q interaction and supported the hypothesis that BmCRT binds with huC1q at their targets (IgG/M, CRP) binding sites. This interaction enables the parasite to interfere with the initial stage of host complement activation, which might be helpful in parasites establishment. These results might be utilized for help in blocking the C1q/CRT interaction and preventing parasite infection.

The Brugia malayi neuropeptide receptor-4 is activated by FMRFamide-like peptides and signals via Gαi.

Genetic studies undertaken in the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans have demonstrated the importance of neuropeptidergic signalling in nematode physiology. Disruption of this signalling may have deleterious phenotypic consequences, including altered locomotion, feeding behaviour, and reproduction. Neuropeptide G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that transduce many of these signals therefore represent cogent drug targets. Recently published genomic sequencing data for a number of parasitic helminths of medical and veterinary importance has revealed the apparent conservation of a number of neuropeptides, and neuropeptide receptors between parasitic and free-living species, raising the intriguing possibility of developing broad-spectrum anthelmintic therapeutics. Here, we identify and clone a neuropeptide receptor, NPR-4, from the human filarial nematode Brugia malayi and demonstrate its activation in vitro, by FMRFamide-like peptides of the FLP-18 family, and intracellular signalling via Gαi mediated pathways. These data represent the first example of deorphanisation of a neuropeptide GPCR in any parasitic helminth species.

A structural biology approach to understand human lymphatic filarial infection.

The presence of aspartic protease inhibitor in filarial parasite Brugia malayi (Bm-Aspin) makes it interesting to study because of the fact that the filarial parasite never encounters the host digestive system. Here, the aspartic protease inhibition kinetics of Bm-Aspin and its NMR structural characteristics have been investigated. The overall aim of this study is to explain the inhibition and binding properties of Bm-Aspin from its structural point of view. UV-spectroscopy and multi-dimensional NMR are the experiments that have been performed to understand the kinetic and structural properties of Bm-Aspin respectively. The human aspartic proteases that are considered for this study are pepsin, renin, cathepsin-E and cathepsin-D. The results of this analysis performed with the specific substrate [Phe-Ala-Ala-Phe (4-NO2)-Phe-Val-Leu (4-pyridylmethyl) ester] against aspartic proteases suggest that Bm-Aspin inhibits the activities of all four human aspartic proteases. The kinetics studies indicate that Bm-Aspin follows a competitive mode of inhibition for pepsin and cathepsin-E, non-competitive for renin and mixed mode for cathepsin-D. The triple resonance NMR experiments on Bm-Aspin suggested the feasibility of carrying out NMR studies to obtain its solution structure. The NMR titration studies on the interactions of Bm-Aspin with the proteases indicate that it undergoes fast-exchange phenomena among themselves. In addition to this, the chemical shift perturbations for some of the residues of Bm-Aspin observed from (15)N-HSQC spectra upon the addition of saturated amounts of aspartic proteases suggest the binding between Bm-Aspin and human aspartic proteases. They also provide information on the variations in the intensities and mode of binding between the proteases duly corroborating with the results from the protease inhibition assay method.

Anti-inflammatory BmAFI of Brugia malayi modulates IgE, histamine and histamine receptor responses in Mastomys coucha.

We recently reported that BmAFI, an anti-inflammatory fraction of Brugia malayi adult worm supports parasite development in the hostile peritoneal cavity (p.c.) of Mastomys coucha through a modified Th2 type of response that includes IL-13 and IgE response and anti-inflammatory IL-10 cytokine milieu. In the present study we investigated IgE related responses such as histamine release and modulation of histamine receptors 1 and 2 (HR1 and HR2) by presensitization with BmAFI of M. coucha infected with B. malayi. Sensitization with BmAFI alone enhanced IgE, histamine and HR2, but decreased HR1. Exposure of these animals to infection produced an IgE response that was inversely related to the parasite burden, and decreased histamine conc., and HR1 and HR2 expression. However, there was an early small increase in HR1 expression for a short period after exposure to infection. As expected, BmAFI sensitization supported parasite survival and development in the hostile p.c. of the host. These findings further establish that BmAFI decreases inflammatory/Th1 response and modulates Th2 responses to favour survival and development of the parasite in the hostile p.c. of the host and that IgE and histamine play an important role in this.

Physicochemical characterization of an aspin (rBm-33) from a filarial parasite Brugia malayi against the important human aspartic proteases.

The aspartic protease inhibitory efficiency of rBm-33, an aspin from a filarial parasite Brugia malayi was investigated. rBm-33 was found to be thermostable up to 90°C and it forms a stable 'enzyme-product' complex with human pepsin. Aspartic protease inhibitory activity was investigated using UV spectroscopy and isothermal titration calorimetry. Our results suggest that rBm-33 inhibits the activity of important human aspartic proteases that were examined with binding constants (Kb) values between 10.23 × 10(3) and 6.52 × 10(3) M(-1). The binding reactions were enthalpy driven with ΔHb values between -50.99 and -46.07 kJ mol(-1). From kinetic studies, pepsin inhibition by rBm-33 was found to be linear competitive with an inhibition constant (Ki) of 2.5 (±0.8) nM. Because of the inhibitory efficacy of Bm-33 against important human aspartic proteases which play a vital role in immune-regulation along with other functions, Bm-33 can be projected as a drug target for the filariasis.

Identification of Brugia malayi immunogens by an immunoproteomics approach.

Filariasis remains a health problem in tropical countries. Identification of immunogens from its causative organism would lead to development of a better diagnostic test, as well as vaccine discovery to effectively prevent this disease. We applied immunoproteomics to define potential immunogens of adult Brugia malayi that were recognized by IgM, IgG1 and IgG4 in sera of patients with four distinct clinical spectra of filariasis, including endemic asymptomatic, lymphangitis, elephantiasis and microfilaremia (n=5/group). Sera of healthy individuals (n=5) from non-endemic area served as the negative control. Brugian proteins were resolved by 2-DE and subjected to 2-D Western blot analysis probed with these sera. A total of 30 immunoreactive proteins recognized by IgM, IgG1 and IgG4 in sera from all four filarial groups were identified by Q-TOF MS and MS/MS analyses. Interestingly, only three immunogens were recognized by IgM in lymphangitis, elephantiasis and microfilaremia, but not in endemic asymptomatic group. IgG1 recognized 20 immunogens in endemic asymptomatic, lymphangitis and microfilaremia (mostly in endemic asymptomatic group), but not in elephantiasis, whereas IgG4 recognized 28 immunogens in all four filarial groups (mostly in microfilaremia). This large data set is an important resource for further development of a new diagnostic test and/or vaccine for filariasis.

The kunitz domain protein BLI-5 plays a functionally conserved role in cuticle formation in a diverse range of nematodes.

The cuticle of parasitic nematodes performs many critical functions and is essential for proper development and for protection from the host immune response. The biosynthesis, assembly, modification and turnover of this exoskeleton have been most extensively studied in the free-living nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, where it represents a complex multi-step process involving a whole suite of enzymes. The biosynthesis of the cuticle has an additional level of complexity, as many of the enzymes also require additional proteins to aid their activation and selective inhibition. Blister-5 (BLI-5) represents a protein with a kunitz-type serine protease interacting domain and is involved in cuticle collagen biosynthesis in C. elegans, through its interaction with subtilisin-like processing enzymes (such as BLI-4). Mutation of the bli-5 gene causes blistering of the collagenous adult cuticle. Homologues of BLI-5 have been identified in several parasitic species that span different nematode clades. In this study, we molecularly and biochemically characterize BLI-5 homologues from the clade V nematodes C. elegans and Haemonchus contortus and from the clade III filarial nematode Brugia malayi. The nematode BLI-5 orthologues possess a shared domain structure and perform similar in vitro and in vivo functions, performing important proteolytic enzyme functions. The results demonstrate that the bli-5 genes from these diverse parasitic nematodes are able to complement a C. elegansbli-5 mutant and thereby support the use of the C. elegans model system to examine gene function in the experimentally less-amenable parasitic species.