Neuropathological assessment of the olfactory bulb and tract in individuals with COVID-19.

The majority of patients with Parkinson disease (PD) experience a loss in their sense of smell and accumulate insoluble α-synuclein aggregates in their olfactory bulbs (OB). Subjects affected by a SARS-CoV-2-linked illness (COVID-19) also frequently experience hyposmia. We previously postulated that microglial activation as well as α-synuclein and tau misprocessing can occur during host responses following microbial encounters. Using semiquantitative measurements of immunohistochemical signals, we examined OB and olfactory tract specimens collected serially at autopsies between 2020 and 2023. Deceased subjects comprised 50 adults, which included COVID19 + patients (n = 22), individuals with Lewy body disease (e.g., PD; dementia with Lewy bodies (n = 6)), Alzheimer disease (AD; n = 3), and other neurodegenerative disorders (e.g., progressive supranuclear palsy (n = 2); multisystem atrophy (n = 1)). Further, we included neurologically healthy controls (n = 9), and added subjects with an inflammation-rich brain disorder as neurological controls (NCO; n = 7). When probing for microglial and histiocytic reactivity in the anterior olfactory nuclei (AON) by anti-CD68 immunostaining, scores were consistently elevated in NCO and AD cases. In contrast, microglial signals on average were not significantly altered in COVID19 + patients relative to healthy controls, although anti-CD68 reactivity in their OB and tracts declined with progression in age. Mild-to-moderate increases in phospho-α-synuclein and phospho-tau signals were detected in the AON of tauopathy- and synucleinopathy-afflicted brains, respectively, consistent with mixed pathology, as described by others. Lastly, when both sides were available for comparison in our case series, we saw no asymmetry in the degree of pathology of the left versus right OB and tracts. We concluded from our autopsy series that after a fatal course of COVID-19, microscopic changes in the rostral, intracranial portion of the olfactory circuitry -when present- reflected neurodegenerative processes seen elsewhere in the brain. In general, microglial reactivity correlated best with the degree of Alzheimer's-linked tauopathy and declined with progression of age in COVID19 + patients.

Histological changes in the olfactory bulb and rostral migratory stream due to interruption of olfactory input.

OBJECTIVE: Periglomerular and granule cells in the adult mammalian olfactory bulb modulate olfactory signal transmission. These cells originate from the subventricular zone, migrate to the olfactory bulb via the Rostral Migratory Stream (RMS), and differentiate into mature cells within the olfactory bulb throughout postnatal life. While the regulation of neuroblast development is known to be affected by external stimuli, there is a lack of information concerning changes that occur during the recovery process after injury caused by external stimuli. To address this gap in research, the present study conducted histological observations to investigate changes in the olfactory bulb and RMS occurring after the degeneration and regeneration of olfactory neurons. METHODS: To create a model of olfactory neurodegeneration, adult mice were administered methimazole intraperitoneally. Nasal tissue and whole brains were removed 3, 7, 14 and 28 days after methimazole administration, and EdU was administered 2 and 4 h before removal of these tissues to monitor dividing cells in the RMS. Methimazole-untreated mice were used as controls. Olfactory nerve fibers entering the olfactory glomerulus were observed immunohistochemically using anti-olfactory marker protein. In the brain tissue, the entire RMS was observed and the volume and total number of cells in the RMS were measured. In addition, the number of neuroblasts and dividing neuroblasts passing through the RMS were measured using anti-doublecortin and anti-EdU antibodies, respectively. Statistical analysis was performed using the Tukey test. RESULTS: Olfactory epithelium degenerated was observed after methimazole administration, and recovered after 28 days. In the olfactory glomeruli, degeneration of OMP fibers began after methimazole administration, and after day 14, OMP fibers were reduced or absent by day 28, and overall OMP positive fibers were less than 20%. Glomerular volume tended to decrease after methimazole administration and did not appear to recover, even 28 days after recovery of the olfactory epithelium. In the RMS, EdU-positive cells decreased on day 3 and began to increase on day 7. However, they did not recover to the same levels as the control methimazole-untreated mice even after 28 days. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the division and maturation of neuroblasts migrating from the RMS was suppressed by olfactory nerve degeneration or the disruption of olfactory input.

SARS-CoV-2 induces inflammation and intracranial infection through the olfactory epithelium-olfactory bulb pathway in non-human primates.

We examined the histopathological changes in the olfactory mucosa of cynomolgus and rhesus macaque models of SARS-CoV-2 infection. SARS-CoV-2 infection induced severe inflammatory changes in the olfactory mucosa. A major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecule, HLA-DR was expressed in macrophage and supporting cells, and melanocytes were increased in olfactory mucosa. Supporting cells and olfactory neurons were infected, and SARS-CoV-2 N protein was detected in the axons of olfactory neurons and in olfactory bulbs. Viral RNA was detected in olfactory bulbs and brain tissues. The olfactory epithelium-olfactory bulb pathway may be important as a route for intracranial infection by SARS-CoV-2.

Olfactory Bulb Volume and Morphology Changes in COVID-19 Patients With Olfactory Disorders Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging.

OBJECTIVES: The aims of the study are to explore the morphological changes of olfactory bulb (OB) and olfactory sulcus in COVID-19 patients with associated olfactory dysfunction (OD) by measuring the OB volume (OBV) and olfactory sulcus depth (OSD) and to compare the measurement values with those of healthy individuals. METHODS: Between March 2020 and January 2022, 31 consecutive hospitalized patients with a diagnosis of COVID-19 with anosmia and hyposmia who underwent brain magnetic resonance imaging and 35 normosmic control individuals were retrospectively included in the study. Bilateral OBV and OSD were measured and shape of the OB was determined based on the consensus by a neuroradiologist and an otorrhynolaryngologist. RESULTS: The mean measurements for the right and the left sides for OBV (38 ± 8.5 and 37.1 ± 8.4, respectively) and OSD (7.4 ± 0.1 and 7.4 ± 1.0 mm, respectively) were significantly lower in COVID-19 patients with OD than those in control group (for the right and the left sides mean OBV 56.3 ± 17.1 and 49.1 ± 13.5, respectively, and mean OSD 9.6 ± 0.8 and 9.4 ± 0.8 mm, respectively). Abnormally shaped OB (lobulated, rectangular, or atrophic) were higher in patient group than those of controls.For the optimal cutoff values, OBV showed sensitivity and specificity values of 90.32% and, 57.14%, for the right, and 87.1% and 62.86% for the left side, respectively (area under the curve, 0.819 and 0.780). Olfactory sulcus depth showed sensitivity and specificity values of 90.32% and 94.29%, for the right, and 96.77% and 85.71%, for the left side, respectively (area under the curve, 0.960 and 0.944). CONCLUSIONS: Decrease in OBV and OSD measurements in COVID-19 patients with OD at the early chronic stage of the disease supports direct damage to olfactory neuronal pathways and may be used to monitor olfactory nerve renewal while returning back to normal function.

Olfactory training with four and eight odors: comparison with clinical testing and olfactory bulb volumetrics.

PURPOSE: Post-infectious olfactory dysfunction (PIOD) is one of the most common causes of olfactory impairment but has limited treatment options. Recently, olfactory training (OT) has been considered an effective treatment method; however, several questions have arisen regarding its optimal scheme. The aim of this study was to assess whether an OT scheme with 8 odors is more effective than the classic OT scheme with 4 odors by comparing psychophysical test results and olfactory bulb (OB) volumetrics. METHODS: In this prospective cohort study, 72 patients with PIOD were included. The patients followed either the classic 4-odor OT scheme (COT; n = 34 patients) or an extended 8-odor scheme (EOT; n = 38 patients) for 16 weeks. All patients underwent olfactory testing with a Sniffin'Sticks battery test at 0, 8, and 16 weeks. Of the patients, 38 underwent brain magnetic resonance imaging for OB volumetric assessment before and after treatment. RESULTS: The comparison of the olfactory test results did not show any significant difference between the two study groups, in agreement with the OB volumetrics. The convex OB showed better test results than the non-convex OB, with significantly better improvement after treatment regardless of OT type. The EOT group presented significantly better adherence than the COT group. CONCLUSION: The number of odors did not appear to play a significant role in the effect of the OT. However, the training scheme with more than four odors showed better adherence among the patients in a long-term treatment plan. The shape of the OB may have prognostic value in clinical assessment and warrants further investigation.

Single-dose intranasal administration of α-syn PFFs induce lewy neurite-like pathology in olfactory bulbs.

INTRODUCTION: Pathological α-synuclein (α-Syn) propagation may cause Parkinson's disease progression. We aimed to verify whether single-dose intranasal administration of α-Syn preformed fibrils (PFFs) induces α-Syn pathology in the olfactory bulb (OB). METHODS: A single dose of α-Syn PFFs was administered to the left nasal cavity of wild-type mice. The untreated right side served as a control. The α-Syn pathology of the OBs was examined up to 12 months after the injection. RESULTS: Lewy neurite-like aggregates were observed in the OB 6 and 12 months after the treatment. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that pathological α-Syn can propagate from the olfactory mucosa to the OB and reveal the potential dangers of α-Syn PFFs inhalation.

miR-145a-5p/Plexin-A2 promotes the migration of OECs and transplantation of miR-145a-5p engineered OECs enhances the functional recovery in rats with SCI.

BACKGROUND: Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) serve as a bridge by migrating at the site of spinal cord injury (SCI) to facilitate the repair of the neural structure and neural function. However, OEC migration at the injury site not only faces the complex and disordered internal environment but also is closely associated with the migration ability of OECs. METHODS: We extracted OECs from the olfactory bulb of SD rats aged <7 days old. We verified the micro ribonucleic acid (miR)-145a-5p expression level in the gene chip after SCI and OEC transplantation using quantitative reverse transcription (qRT)-polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The possible target gene Plexin-A2 of miR-145a-5p was screened using bioinformatics and was verified using dual-luciferase reporter assay, Western blot, and qRT-PCR. The effect of miR-145a-5p/plexin-A2 on OEC migration ability was verified by wound healing assay, Transwell cell migration assay, and immunohistochemistry. Nerve repair was observed at the injured site of the spinal cord after OEC transplantation using tissue immunofluorescence and magnetic resonance imaging, diffusion tensor imaging, and the Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan locomotor rating scale were further used for imaging and functional evaluation. RESULTS: miR-145a-5p expression in the injured spinal cord tissue after SCI considerably decreased, while Plexin-A2 expression significantly increased. OEC transplantation can reverse miR-145a-5p and Plexin-A2 expression after SCI. miR-145a-5p overexpression enhanced the intrinsic migration ability of OECs. As a target gene of miR-145a-5p, Plexin-A2 hinders OEC migration. OEC transplantation overexpressing miR-145a-5p after SCI can increase miR-145a-5p levels in the spinal cord, reduce Plexin-A2 expression in the OECs and the spinal cord tissue, and promote OEC migration and distribution at the injured site. OEC transplantation overexpressing miR-145a-5p can promote the repair of neural morphology and neural function. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrated that miR-145a-5p could promote OEC migration by down-regulating the target gene Plexin-A2, and transplantation of miR-145a-5p engineered OECs was beneficial to enhance neural structural and functional recovery in SCI rats.

Olfactory bulb volume in cochlear implant candidates as compared to age-matched control subjects: A potential marker of cognitive function for auditory information processing.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-based olfactory bulb (OB) volumes in cochlear implant (CI) candidates with sensorineural hearing loss as compared to age-matched control subjects with normal hearing. METHODS: A total of 31 pediatric CI candidates (mean ± SD age: 7.0 ± 2.5 years, 51.6% were boys) with sensorineural hearing loss and 35 age-matched control subjects (mean ± SD age: 7.1 ± 2.5 years, 54.3% were boys) with normal hearing were included in this study. Data on demographic characteristics (age, gender) and right and left OB volume (mm3) on MRI using planimetric contouring method were recorded in patients and control groups. RESULTS: Median (min-max) values for right OB volume (80(50-120) vs. 90(50-160) mm3, p = 0.006) and left OB volume (70(50-120) vs. 90(50-170) mm3, p = 0.007) were significantly lower in CI candidates vs. controls, regardless of the gender and age. No significant difference was noted between right and left OB volume in CI candidate and control groups. Hearing loss subgroups of CI candidates including hereditary familial (n = 8), hereditary non-familial (n = 14) and mixed syndromic (9) subgroups were also similar in terms of patient demographics and OB volumes. There was a tendency for having lower left OB volume (60(50-120) vs. 80(60-110) mm3) in girls vs. boys in the CI candidate group, along with a tendency for lower left and right OB volume in candidates vs. controls, particularly at age 11 (median 120 vs. 80 mm3 and 120 vs. 60 mm3, respectively). No significant correlation of age was noted with right and left OB volume overall and in the study groups. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, our findings revealed lower left and right OB volumes in CI candidates compared to control subjects, regardless of age and gender, indicating the presence of baseline olfactory dysfunction in patients with hearing loss planned to undergo CI. Accordingly, MRI-based measurement of OB volume in the pre-surgical workup of CI candidates may serve as a marker of cognitive function enabling auditory information processing that may also correlate with post-operative CI outcomes.

Reduced olfactory bulb volume and olfactory sulcus depth in obsessive compulsive disorder.

Many studies have shown that limbic system abnormalities are seen in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), but the neurobiological changes in OCD are still unclear. Moreover, olfactory bulb volume (OBV) and its association with symptom severity have not been yet investigated in patients with OCD. This is the first study on OBV and olfactory sulcus depth (OSD) values in OCD patients, to the best of our knowledge. Between January 2018 and March 2022, 25 patients with OCD and 26 healthy controls with brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were included. Detailed disease history of OCD patients was taken, and Yale-Brown obsessive-compulsive scale (YBOCS) was applied. The mean age of the patient group was 33.40±9.58, the mean age of the control group was 32.84±8.01. LOBV, ROBV, TOBV, and LOSD in the patient group were significantly lower than in the control group (p=.013, p=.005, p=.001, p=.015, respectively). ROBV and TOBV were negatively correlated with YBOCS total and subscale scores. A negative correlation was found between ROBV and TOBV and disease duration (r=-0.749 and r=-0.640, respectively). The negative correlation of ROBV and TOBV values with disease duration and disease severity can be used to monitor the neurodegenerative process of OCD disease.

Assessment of factors influencing the olfactory bulb volume in patients with post-viral olfactory dysfunction.

PURPOSE: To investigate the factors influencing the volume of the olfactory bulb (OB) in patients with post-viral olfactory dysfunction (PVOD). METHODS: We collected 92 olfactory bulb volumes from patients with PVOD who underwent a sinus computed tomographic and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan of the head and collected clinical information including gender, age, disease course, minimal cross-sectional area, nasal airway resistance, and olfactory function. OB volume was measured in MRI and the scans were evaluated according to the Lund-Mackay (LM) scoring system. RESULTS: Male patients with PVOD had a larger OB volume (ß = 0.284, P < 0.05). OB volume was smaller in patients with a longer course of olfactory dysfunction (ß = - 0.254, P < 0.05). According to the LM scoring system, patients with a higher anterior ethmoidal sinus score had smaller OB volume (ß = - 0.476, P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The study revealed that gender, disease course, and the score of anterior ethmoidal sinusitis can affect the OB volume in patients with PVOD.

Neuroprotective Effects of Piceatannol on Olfactory Bulb Injury after Subarachnoid Hemorrhage.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) accounts for 5% of all stroke cases and is responsible for significant permanent brain and neurological damage within the first few days. Loss of smell is one of those neurological disorders following olfactory bulb injury after SAH. Olfaction plays a critical role in several aspects of life. The primary underlying mechanism of olfactory bulb (OB) injury and loss of smell after SAH remains unknown. Piceatannol (PIC), a natural stilbene, possesses anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects against various diseases. In this study, we aimed to investigate the potential therapeutic effects of PIC on OB injury following SAH at molecular mechanism based on SIRT1, inflammatory (TNF-α, IL1-ß, NF-κB, IL-6, TLR4), and apoptosis (p53, Bax, Bcl-2, caspase-3)-related gene expression markers and histopathology level; 27 male Wistar Albino rats were used in a pre-chiasmatic subarachnoid hemorrhage model. Animals were divided into groups (n = 9): SHAM, SAH, and PIC. Garcia's neurological examination, brain water content, RT-PCR, histopathology, and TUNEL analyses were performed in all experimental groups with OB samples. Our results indicated that PIC administration significantly suppressed inflammatory molecules (TNF-α, IL-6, IL1-ß, TLR4, NF-κB, SIRT1) and apoptotic molecules (caspase-3, p53, Bax). We also evaluated edema levels and cell damage in OB injury after SAH. Ameliorative effects of PIC are also observed at the histopathology level. Garcia's neurological score test performed a neurological assessment. This study is the first to demonstrate the neuroprotective effects of PIC on OB injury after SAH. It suggests that PIC would be a potential therapeutic agent for alleviating OB injury after SAH.

Clinical and Imaging Evaluation of COVID-19-Related Olfactory Dysfunction.

BACKGROUND: Olfactory dysfunction has been reported in 47.85% of COVID patients. It can be broadly categorized into conductive or sensorineural olfactory loss. Conductive loss occurs due to impaired nasal air flow, while sensorineural loss implies dysfunction of the olfactory epithelium or central olfactory pathways. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to analyze the clinical and imaging findings in patients with COVID-related olfactory dysfunction. Additionally, the study aimed to investigate the possible mechanisms of COVID-related olfactory dysfunction. METHODS: The study included 110 patients with post-COVID-19 olfactory dysfunction, and a control group of 50 COVID-negative subjects with normal olfactory function. Endoscopic nasal examination was performed for all participants with special focus on the olfactory cleft. Smell testing was performed for all participants by using a smell diskettes test. Olfactory pathway magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was done to assess the condition of the olfactory cleft and the dimensions and volume of the olfactory bulb. RESULTS: Olfactory dysfunction was not associated with nasal symptoms in 51.8% of patients. MRI showed significantly increased olfactory bulb dimensions and volume competed to controls. Additionally, it revealed olfactory cleft edema in 57.3% of patients. On the other hand, radiological evidence of sinusitis was detected in only 15.5% of patients. CONCLUSION: The average olfactory bulb volumes were significantly higher in the patients' group compared to the control group, indicating significant edema and swelling in the olfactory bulb in patients with COVID-related olfactory dysfunction. Furthermore, in most patients, no sinonasal symptoms such as nasal congestion or rhinorrhea were reported, and similarly, no radiological evidence of sinusitis was detected. Consequently, the most probable mechanism of COVID-related olfactory dysfunction is sensorineural loss through virus spread and damage to the olfactory epithelium and pathways.

Quantitative analysis of the olfactory system in pediatric epilepsy: a magnetic resonance imaging study

PURPOSE: Olfactory dysfunction is a well-known complication in epilepsy. Studies have demonstrated that olfactory bulb volume (OBV), olfactory tract length (OTL), and olfactory sulcus depth (OSD) can be reliably evaluated using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In this study, we compared the OBV, OTL, and OSD values of children with epilepsy and those of healthy children (controls) of similar age. Our aim was to determine the presence of olfactory dysfunction in children with epilepsy and demonstrate the effects of the epilepsy type and treatment on olfactory function in these patients. METHODS: Cranial MRI images of 36 patients with epilepsy and 108 controls (3-17 years) were evaluated. The patients with epilepsy were divided into groups according to the type of disease and treatment method. Subsequently, OBV and OSD were measured from the coronal section and OTL from the sagittal section. The OBV, OTL, and OSD values were compared between the epilepsy group, subgroups, and controls. RESULTS: OBV was significantly reduced in the children with epilepsy compared with the control group (P < 0.001). No significant difference between the healthy children and those with epilepsy was determined in terms of OTL and OSD. Although OBV was moderately positively correlated with age in the control group (r = 0.561, P < 0.001), it was poorly correlated with age in children with epilepsy (r = 0.393, P = 0.018). CONCLUSION: The results of our study indicate that OBV decreases in children with epilepsy, but epilepsy type and treatment method do not affect OBV, OTL, or OSD (P > 0.05).

Loss of smelling is an early marker of aging and is associated with inflammation and DNA damage in C57BL/6J mice.

Olfactory dysfunction is a prevalent symptom and an early marker of age-related neurodegenerative diseases in humans, including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Diseases. However, as olfactory dysfunction is also a common symptom of normal aging, it is important to identify associated behavioral and mechanistic changes that underlie olfactory dysfunction in nonpathological aging. In the present study, we systematically investigated age-related behavioral changes in four specific domains of olfaction and the molecular basis in C57BL/6J mice. Our results showed that selective loss of odor discrimination was the earliest smelling behavioral change with aging, followed by a decline in odor sensitivity and detection while odor habituation remained in old mice. Compared to behavioral changes related with cognitive and motor functions, smelling loss was among the earliest biomarkers of aging. During aging, metabolites related with oxidative stress, osmolytes, and infection became dysregulated in the olfactory bulb, and G protein coupled receptor-related signaling was significantly down regulated in olfactory bulbs of aged mice. Poly ADP-ribosylation levels, protein expression of DNA damage markers, and inflammation increased significantly in the olfactory bulb of older mice. Lower NAD+ levels were also detected. Supplementation of NAD+ through NR in water improved longevity and partially enhanced olfaction in aged mice. Our studies provide mechanistic and biological insights into the olfaction decline during aging and highlight the role of NAD+ for preserving smelling function and general health.

Is abnormal metabolism in the olfactory bulb and amygdala associated with bipolar disorder?

Accumulated evidence has demonstrated abnormal amygdala activation in bipolar disorder (BD). The olfactory bulb (OB) has vigorous connections with the amygdala. Although odor-related functions of the OB decreased during the evolutionary process, we hypothesized that an evolved OB with increased activation in emotion regulation may be one of the main factors affecting amygdala functions in BD. Our aim was to investigate metabolism in the OB and amygdala in patients with BD. Twenty-six patients diagnosed with BD according to DSM-5 diagnostic criteria were included in this cross-sectional study. Metabolism in the OB and amygdala was assessed using fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/CT in patients with BD. The OB and amygdala metabolism was compared with the patients' Z scores. Both OB and amygdala metabolic activities were significantly higher than in the controls. A positive correlation was detected between right/left amygdala metabolism and right OB metabolism (p < 0.05, r:467 and r:662, respectively). This study increased our understanding of the etiopathogenesis of BD. In BD, the main cause of hypermetabolism in the amygdala may be increased metabolism in the OB. During evolution, the OB may have assumed a dominant role in emotional processing rather than olfactory functions.

Cholinergic Nucleus 4 Degeneration and Cognitive Impairment in Isolated Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Behavior Disorder.

BACKGROUND: Cholinergic nucleus 4 (Ch4) degeneration is associated with cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies, but it is unknown if Ch4 degeneration is also present in isolated rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder (iRBD). OBJECTIVE: The aim was to determine if there is evidence of Ch4 degeneration in patients with iRBD and if it is associated with cognitive impairment. METHODS: We analyzed the clinical and neuropsychological data of 35 iRBD patients and 35 age- and sex-matched healthy controls. Regional gray matter density (GMD) was calculated for Ch4 using probabilistic maps applied to brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). RESULTS: Ch4 GMD was significantly lower in the iRBD group compared to controls (0.417 vs. 0.441, P = 0.02). Ch4 GMD was also found to be a significant predictor of letter number sequencing (ß-coefficient = 58.31, P = 0.026, 95% confidence interval [7.47, 109.15]), a measure of working memory. CONCLUSIONS: iRBD is associated with Ch4 degeneration, and Ch4 degeneration in iRBD is associated with impairment in working memory. © 2023 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Lipopolysaccharide-Initiated Rhinosinusitis Causes Neuroinflammation and Olfactory Dysfunction in Mice.

BACKGROUND: Olfactory dysfunction is a common disease and it may be caused by sinonasal inflammation, toxin inhalation, or neurological disorders. After sinonasal inflammation, if both olfactory neuroinflammation and olfactory dysfunction occur still under investigation. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate whether neuroinflammation and olfactory dysfunction occur after lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-initiated rhinosinusitis. METHODS: Adult C57BL/6 mice were intranasally administered with LPS for 3 weeks. The olfactory function was evaluated with a buried food test. The inflammatory status of sinonasal cavity and olfactory bulb was evaluated with histology and biochemistry. RESULTS: After 3-week LPS treatment, mice developed olfactory dysfunction, sinonasal cavity, and olfactory bulb inflammation. LPS-treated mice had greater sinonasal mucosal thickness. Besides, pro-inflammatory interleukin-6, the number of goblet cells and neutrophils in the sinonasal cavity was increased after LPS administration. The olfactory sensory neurons in the olfactory epithelium and the olfactory bulb were decreased, and the olfactory function was impaired by LPS administration. Inflammatory cytokines such as interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor-α were increased in the olfactory bulb. CONCLUSION: This study showed that LPS-initiated rhinosinusitis caused olfactory neuroinflammation and olfactory dysfunction in mice.

Deficits in peripheric and central olfactory measurements in smokers: evaluated by cranial MRI.

OBJECTIVES: Cigarette smoking remains a serious health problem all over the world. We investigated the peripheral and central olfactory pathways in young male smokers to determine whether there is a relationship between the amount of cigarettes smoked and duration of smoking and the dimensions of the olfactory areas. METHODS: In this retrospective study, cranial Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images of adult male smokers aged ≤ 40 years (n = 51) and 50 healthy male adults were analyzed. The olfactory bulbus (OB) volumes and olfactory sulcus (OS) depths, insular gyrus, and corpus amygdala areas were measured via cranial MRI. In the smoker group, the number of cigarettes smoked and duration of smoking were noted and the Brinkmann index was calculated. RESULTS: OB volume, OS depth, and the insular gyrus areas of the smokers were lower than in the control group (p < 0.05). There were no differences between the groups in terms of the corpus amygdala measurements (p > 0.05). No significant correlations were found between the number of cigarettes smoked daily, smoking duration, and the Brinkmann index and the peripheral and central olfactory measurements in our study (p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: In smokers, OB volumes, the OS, and the central areas decrease bilaterally, regardless of smoking duration and number of cigarettes smoked daily. This could be related to inflammatory mediators that may be harmful to the olfactory neuroepithelium, gray matter atrophy in the brain, or endothelial damage related to smoking and its effects on blood support to the brain and olfactory regions.

Olfactory system measurements in COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

PURPOSE: The neurotropism of SARS-CoV-2 and the consequential damage to the olfactory system have been proposed as one of the possible underlying causes of olfactory dysfunction in COVID-19. We aimed to aggregate the results of the studies which reported imaging of the olfactory system of patients with COVID-19 versus controls. METHODS: PubMed and EMBASE were searched to identify relevant literature reporting the structural imaging characteristics of the olfactory bulb (OB), olfactory cleft, olfactory sulcus (OS), or olfactory tract in COVID-19 patients. Hedge's g and weighted mean difference were used as a measure of effect size. Quality assessment, subgroup analyses, meta-regression, and sensitivity analysis were also conducted. RESULTS: Ten studies were included in the qualitative synthesis, out of which seven studies with 183 cases with COVID-19 and 308 controls without COVID-19 were enrolled in the quantitative synthesis. No significant differences were detected in analyses of right OB volume and left OB volume. Likewise, right OS depth and left OS depth were also not significantly different in COVID-19 cases compared to non-COVID-19 controls. Also, we performed subgroup analysis, meta-regression, and sensitivity analysis to investigate the potential effect of confounding moderators. CONCLUSION: The findings of this review did not confirm alterations in structural imaging of the olfactory system, including OB volume and OS depth by Covid-19 which is consistent with the results of recent histopathological evaluations.

Cerebellar and Olfactory Bulb Perturbations Induced by Vanadium Neurotoxicity in the African Giant Rat (Cricetomys gambianus, Waterhouse).

The African giant rat, AGR (Cricetomys gambianus) is a unique rodent known for its keen sense of smell which has enabled its use in the diagnosis of tuberculosis and demining activities in war torn countries. This keen sense of smell and the ability to navigate tight spaces are skills modulated by the olfactory bulb and cerebellum. While the brain is generally susceptible to environmental pollutants such as heavy metals, vanadium has predilection for these two brain regions. This work was thus designed to investigate the probable neurotoxic effect of vanadium on the neuronal cytoarchitecture of the cerebellum and olfactory bulb in this rodent. To achieve this, twelve adults male AGRs were divided into two groups (vanadium and control groups) and were given intraperitoneal injections of 3mg/kg body weight sodium metavanadate and normal saline respectively for 14 days. After which they were sacrificed, and brains harvested for histological investigations using Nissl and Golgi staining techniques. Results from our experiment revealed Purkinje cell degeneration and pyknosis as revealed by a lower intact-pyknotic cell (I-P) ratio, higher pyknotic Purkinje cell density and poor dendritic arborizations in the molecular layer of the cerebellum in the vanadium treated group. In the olfactory bulb, neuronal loss in the glomerular layer was observed as shrunken glomeruli. These neuronal changes have been linked to deficits in motor function and disruption of odor transduction in the olfactory bulb. This work has further demonstrated the neurotoxic effects of vanadium on the cerebellum and olfactory bulb of the AGR and the likely threat it may pose to the translational potentials of this rodent. We therefore propose the use of this rodent as a suitable model for better understanding vanadium induced olfactory and cerebellar dysfunctions.