Medical Applications and Distribution of Borneol during the Joseon Period.

Borneol(yongnoe) was a fragrance and medicinal ingredient with unique efficacy. However, it could be produced only in tropical Southeast Asia and obtained only through international trade. In addition, camphor(jangnoe) with similar material properties was developed and distributed as an inexpensive replacement for borneol, although the processing method is different from that of borneol. Even in Joseon Korea, borneol and camphor were recognized as separate medicines, and efforts were made to obtain a high-quality borneol. Borneol and camphor have a unique effect of relieving inflammation, pain and heavy feeling, so it could be widely applied to symptoms in various diseases. During the Joseon period, borneol was a rare item that could only be obtained through foreign trade, and it was also used for perfumes and insect repellents, but most widely used as medicine. There are many records of actually prescribing borneol to the royal family, and many medicines containing borneol and its effective symptoms were also recorded in the medical books. Borneol was able to spread widely in Joseon society thanks to the practice of distributing 'nabyak' to court officials every year in the twelfth month of the lunar calendar. Since nabyak was used as a household medicine that was stored and used when necessary, pills containing borneol that could be applied to various symptoms were suitable for this purpose. Despite considerable medical demand, borneol was one of the important 'dangyakjae', the Chinese medicines imported to Joseon. During the Joseon period, borneol was imported through China and Japan, but genuine borneol was difficult to obtain, so it was often presented to Joseon as gifts of envoy trade. It is thought that camphor was also imported, but it is not well mentioned in official records or medical books reflecting national demand. Perhaps this is thought to be because the government prioritized securing better quality borneol rather than campher. In the early 17th century, due to the instability of the envoy's route to the Ming Dynasty, Joseon had to import borneol only through the sea. As a result, there were problems with the supply and quality of borneol, and national interest in Japanese borneol temporarily increased. However, as the relationship with the Qing Dynasty stabilized, a system was established to import national borneol demand through the annual envoy trade. Naeuiwon, the medical center for the royal family is in charge of securing and prescribing Chinese medicines, but the cost was covered by the silver paid by Hojo, the ministry of finance of Joseon Dynasty. Since the amount of Chinese medicines used in the preparation of nabyak was not small, the financial burden of importing enough medicines including borneol increased. The purveyors for government played a role in supplying Chinese medicines to the government. Their appearance shows that private merchants were actively involved in the trade of Chinese medicines including borneol. The formation of the medicinal market by private merchants' activities greatly contributed to the widespread expansion of the applications and distribution of borneol.

A democratic program for healing: The Raspail domestic medicine method in 1840s France.

Raspail's domestic medicine method, popularized in 1840s France, has similarities with the practices of nineteenth century non-academic healers. His mass marketing of camphor as a universal treatment echoes the practices of "charlatans" and their circles. But Raspail is also very original in this history of popular care. As a scientist, a popularizer of encyclopedic knowledge and a political activist, he managed to blur traditional distinctions between science and politics and between popular and learned medicine. Raspail was a constant thorn in the side of academic institutions and professional organizations, which were struggling to gain legitimacy. His work took a political turn when he combined, within a single project, his approach to treatment and his call for democratizing medical care. Raspail's method challenged institutional norms by acknowledging the importance of the patient's contribution to the healing process, and recognizing the necessity of thwarting the occasionally deleterious effects of monopolistic medicalization.

John Brown's system of medicine and its introduction in Denmark around 1800.

At the end of the eighteenth century a scientific basis for medicine was called for. The Scottish physician John Brown proposed an all-comprising medical system in 1780. A surplus or lack of stimulating factors, the prime movers of life according to Brown, was supposed to explain all diseases and indicate their treatment. Individuals only subjected to a small degree of stimulation became affected by "asthenic diseases" which were the most frequent diseases. They should be treated with abundant food and wine, supplemented with camphor, opium, or other drugs considered to be stimulating. Conversely, individuals with "sthenic diseases" should reduce their intake of food and beverage. Brown's system was received with transient approval by some Danish physicians from the late 1790s. But it soon proved to be of no value in medical practice, and its success dwindled within academic medicine around 1814. On the other hand, it seemed to generate new ideas. It became linked with the German Romantic Movement and "Naturphilosophie." The widespread use of camphor and opium in both academic and folk medicine, continued throughout the nine- teenth century and into the twentieth century.

[Raspail, Don Quixote of camphor!]. / Raspail, Don Quichotte du camphre!

François Vincent Raspail (1794-1878) was a chemist and a politician who practised medicine illegally : for him, all pathologies were almost exclusively caused by "parasites" and he treated them all thanks to the beneficial effects of camphor. Raspail did not invent nor discover that substance, which was broadly used in the 18th century, but he codified the use of its various pharmaceutical forms thanks to what would be later called "Raspail's method": camphor to eat (lumps), to snuff (powder), to smoke (cigarettes), brandy and 32° camphored alcohol, camphored oil and sedative water... Since Raspail lavished his patients with many hygiene pieces of advice and moral principles, this method--that was actually a prolongation of his political action in favour of the very poor--was a complete success among the population. But this success was also due to the simplicity of the remedy, its relative harmlessness and, above all, to an incredibly efficient advertising since he enjoyed the support of many important people and also published a very successful book, his Manuel annuaire de Santé, that was re-edited 77 times.

Camphor--a fumigant during the Black Death and a coveted fragrant wood in ancient Egypt and Babylon--a review.

The fragrant camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora) and its products, such as camphor oil, have been coveted since ancient times. Having a rich history of traditional use, it was particularly used as a fumigant during the era of the Black Death and considered as a valuable ingredient in both perfume and embalming fluid. Camphor has been widely used as a fragrance in cosmetics, as a food flavourant, as a common ingredient in household cleaners, as well as in topically applied analgesics and rubefacients for the treatment of minor muscle aches and pains. Camphor, traditionally obtained through the distillation of the wood of the camphor tree, is a major essential oil component of many aromatic plant species, as it is biosynthetically synthesised; it can also be chemically synthesised using mainly turpentine as a starting material. Camphor exhibits a number of biological properties such as insecticidal, antimicrobial, antiviral, anticoccidial, anti-nociceptive, anticancer and antitussive activities, in addition to its use as a skin penetration enhancer. However, camphor is a very toxic substance and numerous cases of camphor poisoning have been documented. This review briefly summarises the uses and synthesis of camphor and discusses the biological properties and toxicity of this valuable molecule.

The birth of convulsive therapy revisited: a reappraisal of László Meduna's first cohort of patients.

BACKGROUND: The introduction of convulsive therapy (COT) was undoubtedly one of the milestones in the history of psychiatry. Its originator, László Meduna, has become one of the founding fathers of biological psychiatry. METHODS: In his first major publication on COT, Meduna described the short-term treatment outcome of the first 26 schizophrenia patients who underwent camphor- or cardiazol-induced COT; 10 improved significantly, 3 appeared slightly improved, and 13 were unimproved. The original medical notes of 23 of the 26 patients were recently recovered and the patients re-diagnosed by the authors employing ICD-10 criteria. RESULTS: The diagnosis of schizophrenia was confirmed in 15 cases (all but two of them involving prominent catatonic symptomatology), while 2 cases met diagnostic criteria for schizoaffective disorder, 3 for Bipolar Affective Disorder (BAD) with psychotic features, 1 for psychotic depression, and 1 for Acute and Transient Psychotic Disorder (ATPD). In a final case, the most probable diagnosis was schizophrenia. Scrutiny of the notes revealed that 4 schizophrenia patients evidenced slight improvement on COT and in one case the improvement was only transient. A limitation of this study is that the quality of the original files varied considerably and the re-evaluation was done retrospectively. CONCLUSIONS: A very broad concept of schizophrenia in the 1930s explains the discrepancy between the original and the revised results. In line with the current views on the effectiveness of electroconvulsive therapy, catatonic symptoms, but not the core schizophrenic process, showed some improvement while all ATPD, BAD and depressed patients responded to COT.

[Some notes on Cesare Bertagnini, pioneer of pharmacokinetics]. / Quelques notes sur Cesare Bertagnini, pionnier de la pharmacocinétique.

Cesare Bertagnini was a student of Raffaele Piria. He took orally various acids (nitrobenzoic, camphoric and salicylic) and dosed these compounds and metabolites in his own urines. He acted as a precursor of pharmacokinetics.

László Meduna's pilot studies with camphor inductions of seizures: the first 11 patients.

In his autobiography, László Meduna described the first session of convulsive therapy using intramuscular camphor as occurring on January 23, 1934 at Royal National Hungarian Institute of Psychiatric and Neurology at Budapest-Lipótmezo in Hungary. Unearthed records of the patients treated at this institution reveal that Meduna's dose-finding experiments began on January 2, 1934. The symptomatology and history of illness, diagnosis, socio-demographic data, the seizure characteristics, and immediate and long term outcomes of the first 11 patients are described. These first trials elicited seizures in less than half the injections. Seizures of various durations (including missed seizures) and double (tardive) seizures were recorded. Mutism, refusal to eat requiring tube feeding, and other signs of catatonia dominated the psychopathology of 7 of the first 11 patients. Two improved sufficiently to be discharged from the hospital and third patient became fit for occupational therapy. These records exhibit the meticulous systematic nature of the first human trials with induced seizures and the fortuitous nature of the first human trials with induced seizures and the fortuitous nature in patient selection of catatonic patients--an illness that is most responsive to induced seizures.

Sakel versus Meduna: different strokes, different styles of scientific discovery.

It is ironic that Laszlo Meduna and Manfred Sakel made epochal discoveries in psychiatry only two years apart because in most other ways, the two men could hardly be more different. The story of their differences and similarities invites us to consider the personal preconditions for scientific discovery. What common denominators led them to develop treatments, which represent the introduction of convulsive therapy, which remains today the most powerful treatment in psychiatry? Despite the marked differences in their personalities, Sakel and Meduna shared intellectual quickness, drive, and a willingness to take risks, three qualities that, in the case of these individuals at least, came together to revolutionize the treatment of serious psychiatric illness.

[The birth of convulsive therapy]. / A görcskezelés születése.

The history of the first convulsive treatment is summarized here in commemoration of its 75th anniversary. The neuropathological and clinical findings underlying the theoretical basis of the method are reviewed, together with the case histories of the first batch of patients who underwent convulsive therapy. The early indications and effectiveness of convulsive therapy are also discussed. Finally, in a broader context, the role of convulsive treatment in the development of modern biological psychiatry and Laszlo Meduna's contribution to this development touched upon.

Leopold Auenbrugger: camphor-induced epilepsy - remedy for manic psychosis.

Leopold Auenbrugger invented the art of diagnostic percussion. This paper recalls his use of camphor to induce epileptic fits, which were considered a remedy for psychosis. The initiation of the art of percussion by Auenbrugger is outlined, with a brief biographical sketch.

[The birth of biological therapy in Hungary: the story of László Meduna's first patient receiving convulsive therapy]. / Biológiai terápia születése Magyarországon: Meduna László "elsô" görcskezelt betegének története.

Convulsive treatment was introduced to psychiatry by László Meduna, a Hungarian neuropsychiatrist. In his autobiography, Meduna gave a detailed description of his first patient who underwent convulsive therapy. According to Meduna's recollections, this patient was L. Zoltán, who after 4 years of fluctuating catatonic stupor received several sessions of camphor-induced convulsive therapy resulting in full remission and discharge from the institution. In this communication, the authors reconstruct L Zoltán's case history from the original case notes, which were recovered from the Archives of the National Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology, Budapest. The case notes show that L. Zoltán received courses of convulsive treatment between 1934 and 1937, first induced with camphor and then with cardiazol. After the first course of treatment the catatonic stupor was resolved and the psychotic symptoms subsided. However, this incomplete remission lasted only for a few months and was followed by a relapse. Despite further courses of convulsive therapy, L. Zoltán never became symptom free again, could never be discharged and died in the institute in 1945. The authors attempt to explain possible reasons for the discrepancies found between Meduna's account and L. Zoltán's case notes.

[Historical study of moth repellent, "Fujisawa Camphor" (6) - manufacturing and selling of "Fujisawa Camphor" during World War II.].

During World War II, the amount of camphor production did not decrease, since it was used for munitions. At that time, camphor was not use for moth repellents, are not a life supporting necessity. The factory that took charge of camphor production was busy producing medicine for military use. Due to the war, an abnormal situation in the factory arose when the procurement department requested supplementation because of reinforcement of a lack of materials. Additionally, in the home, the use of moth repellent for clothing was not a concern. Of importance where was ensuring sufficient food to survive. The supply of "Fujisawa Camphor" for home use started in the post-war days, 1947.

[Historical study of the moth repellent, "Fujisawa Camphor" (7) - selling price and packaging.].

The selling price of "Fujisawa Camphor" has increased 1,000-fold in the 100 years since it first went on sale. This 1,000-fold increase is not high at all. The price of "Fujisawa Camphor" was not low in the 1980s, one of grounds for setting the price was the damage caused by moths to expensive Japanese clothes and curios. For packaging in the Edo era, being wrapped in paper was the mainstream form, but modern-age packaging shifted to a cardboard box. As for "Fujisawa Camphor", a beautiful design was created for the cardboard.

[Historical study of a moth repellent "Fujisawa Camphor" (4) - newspaper advertisements for "Fujisawa Camphor" in the Meiji Era].

Newspaper advertisements were frequently available as one way of communicating news about new products to the general public during the middle of the Meiji Era. The first newspaper advertisement of "Fujisawa Camphor"' appeared in the Osaka Asahi on June 1, 1989. At that time, the newspaper advertisements of OTC were brilliant and the space taken by them was large, in some cases covering a full page. They appeared daily. However, the ad for Fujisawa Camphors was small and simple. The appeal points of the Fujisawa Camphor advertisement were as follows: 1. Fujisawa Camphor, crystals of refined camphor, are hard and colorless.2. It is effective for insecticide and prevents moisture.3. It is widely used by governments and the military.4. It removes bad smell to protect against infectious diseases.

[Historical study of the moth repellent, "Fujisawa Camphor" (5) - quality assurance and consumers].

In the Meiji Era, the concepts of consumers did not exist; however, customers were certainly valued at that time based on the policy that "the customer is always right". Customers were always considered as guests, and there were no conflicting matters with manufacturers. The sales agency for Fujisawa camphor, Fujisawa Company, took up a positive attitude towards customer services. First, the company excluded imitation products in order to protect customers from poor quality, and second, the company released data regarding camphor comparisons and effects with other insecticides. At that time, they seemed to fear being talked about in terms of the mistaken use of camphor. The company commissioned a public research laboratory to study the interaction of camphor and precious metals, and made an appeal to customers for the truth.

[Camphor in the Edo era (4) moth repellent, deodorant, and fungicide].

A troublesome task in the daily life of the Edo era was ridding houses of harmful insects such as mosquitoes, fleas and clothes moths. People commonly drove away mosquitoes by making smoke. They hung their clothes or books in the air to keep them free from moisture. This was effective in protecting them from becoming moldy or being damaged by insects. Various medicinal plants were used to eliminate harmful house insects or agricultural vermin. Camphor was a variety of insecticide, but it was not popular in early Edo times because it was not easily available then. But in the end of Edo period, camphor became popular as a moth repellent.

[Camphor in the Edo era fireworks].

Guns and gunpowder were introduced into Japan in 1543 by the Portuguese, and they soon began to be made in Japan by the Japanese. The powder was used also for making fireworks. The brilliance of fireworks was darker and the scale was less in the Edo period. Various materials were added to the powder to make the fireworks more brilliant. Camphor was one of them, though the volume was slight and the frequency of adding it was small. Camphor had been used for torch-light materials before the Edo period, so it seems logical that it would be added to powder for fireworks.