Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Kir6.2 Variants Reveals Potential Association with Diabetes Mellitus.

Diabetes mellitus (DM) represents a problem for the healthcare system worldwide. DM has very serious complications such as blindness, kidney failure, and cardiovascular disease. In addition to the very bad socioeconomic impacts, it influences patients and their families and communities. The global costs of DM and its complications are huge and expected to rise by the year 2030. DM is caused by genetic and environmental risk factors. Genetic testing will aid in early diagnosis and identification of susceptible individuals or populations using ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels present in different tissues such as the pancreas, myocardium, myocytes, and nervous tissues. The channels respond to different concentrations of blood sugar, stimulation by hormones, or ischemic conditions. In pancreatic cells, they regulate the secretion of insulin and glucagon. Mutations in the KCNJ11 gene that encodes the Kir6.2 protein (a major constituent of KATP channels) were reported to be associated with Type 2 DM, neonatal diabetes mellitus (NDM), and maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY). Kir6.2 harbors binding sites for ATP and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-diphosphate (PIP2). The ATP inhibits the KATP channel, while the (PIP2) activates it. A Kir6.2 mutation at tyrosine330 (Y330) was demonstrated to reduce ATP inhibition and predisposes to NDM. In this study, we examined the effect of mutations on the Kir6.2 structure using bioinformatics tools and molecular dynamic simulations (SIFT, PolyPhen, SNAP2, PANTHER, PhD&SNP, SNP&Go, I-Mutant, MuPro, MutPred, ConSurf, HOPE, and GROMACS). Our results indicated that M199R, R201H, R206H, and Y330H mutations influence Kir6.2 structure and function and therefore may cause DM. We conclude that MD simulations are useful techniques to predict the effects of mutations on protein structure. In addition, the M199R, R201H, R206H, and Y330H variant in the Kir6.2 protein may be associated with DM. These results require further verification in protein-protein interactions, Kir6.2 function, and case-control studies.

Cooperative Gating of a K+ Channel by Unmodified Biological Anionic Lipids Viewed by Solid-State NMR Spectroscopy.

Lipids adhere to membrane proteins to stimulate or suppress molecular and ionic transport and signal transduction. Yet, the molecular details of lipid-protein interaction and their functional impact are poorly characterized. Here we combine NMR, coarse-grained molecular dynamics (CGMD), and functional assays to reveal classic cooperativity in the binding and subsequent activation of a bacterial inward rectifier potassium (Kir) channel by phosphatidylglycerol (PG), a common component of many membranes. Past studies of lipid activation of Kir channels focused primarily on phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate, a relatively rare signaling lipid that is tightly regulated in space and time. We use solid-state NMR to quantify the binding of unmodified 13C-PG to the K+ channel KirBac1.1 in liposomes. This specific lipid-protein interaction has a dissociation constant (Kd) of ∼7 mol percentage PG (ΧPG) with positive cooperativity (n = 3.8) and approaches saturation near 20% ΧPG. Liposomal flux assays show that K+ flux also increases with PG in a cooperative manner with an EC50 of ∼20% ΧPG, within the physiological range. Further quantitative fitting of these data reveals that PG acts as a partial (80%) agonist with fivefold K+ flux amplification. Comparisons of NMR chemical shift perturbation and CGMD simulations at different ΧPG confirm the direct interaction of PG with key residues, several of which would not be accessible to lipid headgroups in the closed state of the channel. Allosteric regulation by a common lipid is directly relevant to the activation mechanisms of several human ion channels. This study highlights the role of concentration-dependent lipid-protein interactions and tightly controlled protein allostery in the activation and regulation of ion channels.

Sulfonylurea receptor 2 (SUR2), intricate sensors for intracellular Mg-nucleotides.

SUR2, similar to SUR1, is a regulatory subunit of the ATP-sensitive potassium channel (KATP), which plays a key role in numerous important physiological processes and is implicated in various diseases. Recent structural studies have revealed that, like SUR1, SUR2 can undergo ligand-dependent dynamic conformational changes, transitioning between an inhibitory inward-facing conformation and an activating occluded conformation. In addition, SUR2 possesses a unique inhibitory Regulatory helix (R helix) that is absent in SUR1. The binding of the activating Mg-ADP to NBD2 of SUR2 competes with the inhibitory Mg-ATP, thereby promoting the release of the R helix and initiating the activation process. Moreover, the signal generated by Mg-ADP binding to NBD2 might be directly transmitted to the TMD of SUR2, prior to NBD dimerization. Furthermore, the C-terminal 42 residues (C42) of SUR2 might allosterically regulate the kinetics of Mg-nucleotide binding on NBD2. These distinctive properties render SUR2 intricate sensors for intracellular Mg-nucleotides.

Functional dissection of KATP channel structures reveals the importance of a conserved interface.

ATP-sensitive potassium channels (KATP) are inhibited by ATP but activated by Mg-ADP, coupling the intracellular ATP/ADP ratio to the potassium conductance of the plasma membrane. Although there has been progress in determining the structure of KATP, the functional significance of the domain-domain interface in the gating properties of KATP channels remains incompletely understood. In this study, we define the structure of KATP as two modules: KATPcore and SURABC. Based on this model, we identified two functionally important interfaces between these two modules, namely interface I and interface II. Further structure-guided mutagenesis experiments indicate that destabilizing interface II by deleting ECL3 on the SUR1 subunit impairs KNtp-independent Mg-ADP activation, demonstrating the essential role of intramolecular interactions between KATPcore and SURABC in Mg-ADP activation. Additionally, interface II is functionally conserved between SUR1 and SUR2, and the hydrophobic residue F351 on ECL3 of SUR1 is crucial for maintaining the stability of this interface.

The Emerging Structural Pharmacology of ATP-Sensitive Potassium Channels.

ATP-sensitive potassium channels (KATP) are energy sensors that participate in a range of physiologic processes. These channels are also clinically validated drug targets. For decades, KATP inhibitors have been prescribed for diabetes and KATP activators have been used for the treatment of hypoglycemia, hypertension, and hair loss. In this Emerging Concepts article, we highlight our current knowledge about the drug binding modes observed using cryogenic electron microscopy techniques. The inhibitors and activators bind to two distinct sites in the transmembrane domain of the sulfonylurea receptor (SUR) subunit. We also discuss the possible mechanism of how these drugs allosterically modulate the dimerization of SUR nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs) and thus KATP channel activity. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: ATP-sensitive potassium channels (KATP) are fundamental to energy homeostasis, and they participate in many vital physiological processes. KATP channels are important drug targets. Both KATP inhibitors (insulin secretagogues) and KATP activators are broadly used clinically for the treatment of related diseases. Recent cryogenic electron microscopy studies allow us to understand the emerging concept of KATP structural pharmacology.

Cryo-electron microscopy unveils unique structural features of the human Kir2.1 channel.

We present the first structure of the human Kir2.1 channel containing both transmembrane domain (TMD) and cytoplasmic domain (CTD). Kir2.1 channels are strongly inward-rectifying potassium channels that play a key role in maintaining resting membrane potential. Their gating is modulated by phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2). Genetically inherited defects in Kir2.1 channels are responsible for several rare human diseases, including Andersen's syndrome. The structural analysis (cryo-electron microscopy), surface plasmon resonance, and electrophysiological experiments revealed a well-connected network of interactions between the PIP2-binding site and the G-loop through residues R312 and H221. In addition, molecular dynamics simulations and normal mode analysis showed the intrinsic tendency of the CTD to tether to the TMD and a movement of the secondary anionic binding site to the membrane even without PIP2. Our results revealed structural features unique to human Kir2.1 and provided insights into the connection between G-loop and gating and the pathological mechanisms associated with this channel.

Ion currents through Kir potassium channels are gated by anionic lipids.

Ion currents through potassium channels are gated. Constriction of the ion conduction pathway at the inner helix bundle, the textbook gate of Kir potassium channels, has been shown to be an ineffective permeation control, creating a rift in our understanding of how these channels are gated. Here we present evidence that anionic lipids act as interactive response elements sufficient to gate potassium conduction. We demonstrate the limiting barrier to K+ permeation lies within the ion conduction pathway and show that this gate is operated by the fatty acyl tails of lipids that infiltrate the conduction pathway via fenestrations in the walls of the pore. Acyl tails occupying a surface groove extending from the cytosolic interface to the conduction pathway provide a potential means of relaying cellular signals, mediated by anionic lipid head groups bound at the canonical lipid binding site, to the internal gate.

A Cholesterol Dimer Stabilizes the Inactivated State of an Inward-Rectifier Potassium Channel.

Cholesterol oligomers reside in multiple membrane protein X-ray crystal structures. Yet, there is no direct link between these oligomers and a biological function. Here we present the structural and functional details of a cholesterol dimer that stabilizes the inactivated state of an inward-rectifier potassium channel KirBac1.1. K+ efflux assays confirm that high cholesterol concentration reduces K+ conductance. We then determine the structure of the cholesterol-KirBac1.1 complex using Xplor-NIH simulated annealing calculations driven by solid-state NMR distance measurements. These calculations identified an α-α cholesterol dimer docked to a cleft formed by adjacent subunits of the homotetrameric protein. We compare these results to coarse grain molecular dynamics simulations. This is one of the first examples of a cholesterol oligomer performing a distinct biological function and structural characterization of a conserved promiscuous lipid binding region.

A novel complex genomic rearrangement affecting the KCNJ2 regulatory region causes a variant of Cooks syndrome.

Cooks syndrome (CS) is an ultrarare limb malformation due to in tandem microduplications involving KCNJ2 and extending to the 5' regulatory element of SOX9. To date, six CS families were resolved at the molecular level. Subsequent studies explored the evolutionary and pathological complexities of the SOX9-KCNJ2/Sox9-Kcnj2 locus, and suggested a key role for the formation of novel topologically associating domain (TAD) by inter-TAD duplications in causing CS. Here, we report a unique case of CS associated with a de novo 1;17 translocation affecting the KCNJ2 locus. On chromosome 17, the breakpoint mapped between KCNJ16 and KCNJ2, and combined with a ~ 5 kb deletion in the 5' of KCNJ2. Based on available capture Hi-C data, the breakpoint on chromosome 17 separated KCNJ2 from a putative enhancer. Gene expression analysis demonstrated downregulation of KCNJ2 in both patient's blood cells and cultured skin fibroblasts. Our findings suggest that a complex rearrangement falling in the 5' of KCNJ2 may mimic the developmental consequences of in tandem duplications affecting the SOX9-KCNJ2/Sox9-Kcnj2 locus. This finding adds weight to the notion of an intricate role of gene regulatory regions and, presumably, the related three-dimensional chromatin structure in normal and abnormal human morphology.

Probing ion channel functional architecture and domain recombination compatibility by massively parallel domain insertion profiling.

Protein domains are the basic units of protein structure and function. Comparative analysis of genomes and proteomes showed that domain recombination is a main driver of multidomain protein functional diversification and some of the constraining genomic mechanisms are known. Much less is known about biophysical mechanisms that determine whether protein domains can be combined into viable protein folds. Here, we use massively parallel insertional mutagenesis to determine compatibility of over 300,000 domain recombination variants of the Inward Rectifier K+ channel Kir2.1 with channel surface expression. Our data suggest that genomic and biophysical mechanisms acted in concert to favor gain of large, structured domain at protein termini during ion channel evolution. We use machine learning to build a quantitative biophysical model of domain compatibility in Kir2.1 that allows us to derive rudimentary rules for designing domain insertion variants that fold and traffic to the cell surface. Positional Kir2.1 responses to motif insertion clusters into distinct groups that correspond to contiguous structural regions of the channel with distinct biophysical properties tuned towards providing either folding stability or gating transitions. This suggests that insertional profiling is a high-throughput method to annotate function of ion channel structural regions.

Proteomic Analysis of the Functional Inward Rectifier Potassium Channel (Kir) 2.1 Reveals Several Novel Phosphorylation Sites.

Membrane proteins represent a large family of proteins that perform vital physiological roles and represent key drug targets. Despite their importance, bioanalytical methods aiming to comprehensively characterize the post-translational modification (PTM) of membrane proteins remain challenging compared to other classes of proteins in part because of their inherent low expression and hydrophobicity. The inward rectifier potassium channel (Kir) 2.1, an integral membrane protein, is critical for the maintenance of the resting membrane potential and phase-3 repolarization of the cardiac action potential in the heart. The importance of this channel to cardiac physiology is highlighted by the recognition of several sudden arrhythmic death syndromes, Andersen-Tawil and short QT syndromes, which are associated with loss or gain of function mutations in Kir2.1, often triggered by changes in the ß-adrenergic tone. Therefore, understanding the PTMs of this channel (particularly ß-adrenergic tone-driven phosphorylation) is important for arrhythmia prevention. Here, we developed a proteomic method, integrating both top-down (intact protein) and bottom-up (after enzymatic digestion) proteomic analyses, to characterize the PTMs of recombinant wild-type and mutant Kir2.1, successfully mapping five novel sites of phosphorylation and confirming a sixth site. Our study provides a framework for future work to assess the role of PTMs in regulating Kir2.1 functions.

Structure based analysis of KATP channel with a DEND syndrome mutation in murine skeletal muscle.

Developmental delay, epilepsy, and neonatal diabetes (DEND) syndrome, the most severe end of neonatal diabetes mellitus, is caused by mutation in the ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channel. In addition to diabetes, DEND patients present muscle weakness as one of the symptoms, and although the muscle weakness is considered to originate in the brain, the pathological effects of mutated KATP channels in skeletal muscle remain elusive. Here, we describe the local effects of the KATP channel on muscle by expressing the mutation present in the KATP channels of the DEND syndrome in the murine skeletal muscle cell line C2C12 in combination with computer simulation. The present study revealed that the DEND mutation can lead to a hyperpolarized state of the muscle cell membrane, and molecular dynamics simulations based on a recently reported high-resolution structure provide an explanation as to why the mutation reduces ATP sensitivity and reveal the changes in the local interactions between ATP molecules and the channel.

Solubilization, purification, and functional reconstitution of human ROMK potassium channel in copolymer styrene-maleic acid (SMA) nanodiscs.

Expression, purification, and functional reconstitution of mammalian ion channels are often challenging. Heterologous expression of mammalian channels in bacteria can be advantageous due to unrelated protein environment and the lack of risk of copurification of endogenous proteins, e.g., accessory channel subunits that can influence the channel activity. Also, direct recording of channel activity could be challenging due to their intracellular localization like in the case of mitochondrial channels. The activity of purified channels can be characterized at the single-molecule level by electrophysiological techniques, such as planar lipid bilayers (PLB). In this work, we describe a simple approach to accomplish PLB recording of the activity of single renal outer medullary potassium channels ROMK expressed in E. coli. We focused on the ROMK2 isoform that is present at low levels in the mitochondria and can be responsible for mitoKATP activity. We screened for the best construct to express the codon-optimized ROMK proteins with a 6xHis tag for protein purification. The strategy involved the use of optimal styrene-maleic acid (SMA) copolymer, which forms so-called polymer nanodiscs, to solubilize and purify ROMK-containing SMA lipid particles (SMALPs), which were amenable for fusion with PLB. Reconstituted ROMK channels exhibited ion selectivity, rectification, and pharmacological properties, which are in agreement with previous work on ROMK channels.

Integrative Study of the Structural and Dynamical Properties of a KirBac3.1 Mutant: Functional Implication of a Highly Conserved Tryptophan in the Transmembrane Domain.

ATP-sensitive potassium (K-ATP) channels are ubiquitously expressed on the plasma membrane of cells in several organs, including the heart, pancreas, and brain, and they govern a wide range of physiological processes. In pancreatic ß-cells, K-ATP channels composed of Kir6.2 and SUR1 play a key role in coupling blood glucose and insulin secretion. A tryptophan residue located at the cytosolic end of the transmembrane helix is highly conserved in eukaryote and prokaryote Kir channels. Any mutation on this amino acid causes a gain of function and neonatal diabetes mellitus. In this study, we have investigated the effect of mutation on this highly conserved residue on a KirBac channel (prokaryotic homolog of mammalian Kir6.2). We provide the crystal structure of the mutant KirBac3.1 W46R (equivalent to W68R in Kir6.2) and its conformational flexibility properties using HDX-MS. In addition, the detailed dynamical view of the mutant during the gating was investigated using the in silico method. Finally, functional assays have been performed. A comparison of important structural determinants for the gating mechanism between the wild type KirBac and the mutant W46R suggests interesting structural and dynamical clues and a mechanism of action of the mutation that leads to the gain of function.

Cryo-EM analysis of PIP2 regulation in mammalian GIRK channels.

G-protein-gated inward rectifier potassium (GIRK) channels are regulated by G proteins and PIP2. Here, using cryo-EM single particle analysis we describe the equilibrium ensemble of structures of neuronal GIRK2 as a function of the C8-PIP2 concentration. We find that PIP2 shifts the equilibrium between two distinguishable structures of neuronal GIRK (GIRK2), extended and docked, towards the docked form. In the docked form the cytoplasmic domain, to which Gßγ binds, becomes accessible to the cytoplasmic membrane surface where Gßγ resides. Furthermore, PIP2 binding reshapes the Gßγ binding surface on the cytoplasmic domain, preparing it to receive Gßγ. We find that cardiac GIRK (GIRK1/4) can also exist in both extended and docked conformations. These findings lead us to conclude that PIP2 influences GIRK channels in a structurally similar manner to Kir2.2 channels. In Kir2.2 channels, the PIP2-induced conformational changes open the pore. In GIRK channels, they prepare the channel for activation by Gßγ.

Towards the Development of AgoKirs: New Pharmacological Activators to Study Kir2.x Channel and Target Cardiac Disease.

Inward rectifier potassium ion channels (IK1-channels) of the Kir2.x family are responsible for maintaining a stable negative resting membrane potential in excitable cells, but also play a role in processes of non-excitable tissues, such as bone development. IK1-channel loss-of-function, either congenital or acquired, has been associated with cardiac disease. Currently, basic research and specific treatment are hindered by the absence of specific and efficient Kir2.x channel activators. However, twelve different compounds, including approved drugs, show off-target IK1 activation. Therefore, these compounds contain valuable information towards the development of agonists of Kir channels, AgoKirs. We reviewed the mechanism of IK1 channel activation of these compounds, which can be classified as direct or indirect activators. Subsequently, we examined the most viable starting points for rationalized drug development and possible safety concerns with emphasis on cardiac and skeletal muscle adverse effects of AgoKirs. Finally, the potential value of AgoKirs is discussed in view of the current clinical applications of potentiators and activators in cystic fibrosis therapy.

The capillary Kir channel as sensor and amplifier of neuronal signals: Modeling insights on K+-mediated neurovascular communication.

Neuronal activity leads to an increase in local cerebral blood flow (CBF) to allow adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients to active neurons, a process termed neurovascular coupling (NVC). We have previously shown that capillary endothelial cell (cEC) inwardly rectifying K+ (Kir) channels can sense neuronally evoked increases in interstitial K+ and induce rapid and robust dilations of upstream parenchymal arterioles, suggesting a key role of cECs in NVC. The requirements of this signal conduction remain elusive. Here, we utilize mathematical modeling to investigate how small outward currents in stimulated cECs can elicit physiologically relevant spread of vasodilatory signals within the highly interconnected brain microvascular network to increase local CBF. Our model shows that the Kir channel can act as an "on-off" switch in cECs to hyperpolarize the cell membrane as extracellular K+ increases. A local hyperpolarization can be amplified by the voltage-dependent activation of Kir in neighboring cECs. Sufficient Kir density enables robust amplification of the hyperpolarizing stimulus and produces responses that resemble action potentials in excitable cells. This Kir-mediated excitability can remain localized in the stimulated region or regeneratively propagate over significant distances in the microvascular network, thus dramatically increasing the efficacy of K+ for eliciting local hyperemia. Modeling results show how changes in cEC transmembrane current densities and gap junctional resistances can affect K+-mediated NVC and suggest a key role for Kir as a sensor of neuronal activity and an amplifier of retrograde electrical signaling in the cerebral vasculature.

New Structural insights into Kir channel gating from molecular simulations, HDX-MS and functional studies.

Inward rectifier potassium (Kir) channels play diverse and important roles in shaping action potentials in biological membranes. An increasing number of diseases are now known to be directly associated with abnormal Kir function. However, the gating of Kir still remains unknown. To increase our understanding of its gating mechanism, a dynamical view of the entire channel is essential. Here the gating activation was studied using a recent developped in silico method, MDeNM, which combines normal mode analysis and molecular dynamics simulations that showed for the very first time the importance of interrelated collective and localized conformational movements. In particular, we highlighted the role played by concerted movements of the different regions throughout the entire protein, such as the cytoplasmic and transmembrane domains and the slide helices. In addition, the HDX-MS analysis achieved in these studies provided a comprehensive and detailed view of the dynamics associated with open/closed transition of the Kir channel in coherence with the theoretical results. MDeNM gives access to the probability of the different opening states that are in agreement with our electrophysiological experiments. The investigations presented in this article are important to remedy dysfunctional channels and are of interest for designing new pharmacological compounds.

KIR channels in the microvasculature: Regulatory properties and the lipid-hemodynamic environment.

Basal tone and perfusion control is set in cerebral arteries by the sensing of pressure and flow, key hemodynamic stimuli. These forces establish a contractile foundation within arterial networks upon which local neurovascular stimuli operate. This fundamental process is intimately tied to arterial VM and the rise in cytosolic [Ca2+] by the graded opening of voltage-operated Ca2+ channels. Arterial VM is in turn controlled by a dynamic interaction among several resident ion channels, KIR being one of particular significance. As the name suggests, KIR displays strong inward rectification, retains a small outward component, potentiated by extracellular K+ and blocked by micromolar Ba2+. Cerebrovascular KIR is unique from other K+ currents as it is present in both smooth muscle and endothelium yet lacking in classical regulatory modulation. Such observations have fostered the view that KIR is nothing more than a background conductance, activated by extracellular K+ and which passively facilitates dilation. Recent work in cell model systems has; however, identified two membrane lipids, phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) and cholesterol, that interact with KIR2.x, to stabilize the channel in the preferred open or silent state, respectively. Translating this unique form of regulation, recent studies have demonstrated that specific lipid-protein interactions enable unique KIR populations to sense distinct hemodynamic stimuli and set basal tone. This review summarizes the current knowledge of vascular KIR channels and how the lipid and hemodynamic impact their activity.