A chlorophyll c synthase widely co-opted by phytoplankton.

Marine and terrestrial photosynthesis exhibit a schism in the accessory chlorophyll (Chl) that complements the function of Chl a: Chl b for green plants versus Chl c for most eukaryotic phytoplankton. The enzymes that mediate Chl c biosynthesis have long remained elusive. In this work, we identified the CHLC dioxygenase (Phatr3_J43737) from the marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum as the Chl c synthase. The chlc mutants lacked Chl c, instead accumulating its precursors, and exhibited growth defects. In vitro, recombinant CHLC protein converted these precursors into Chl c, thereby confirming its identity. Phylogenetic evidence demonstrates conserved use of CHLC across phyla but also the existence of distinct Chl c synthases in different algal groups. Our study addresses a long-outstanding question with implications for both contemporary and ancient marine photosynthesis.

Salmonella spvC Gene Inhibits Autophagy of Host Cells and Suppresses NLRP3 as Well as NLRC4.

Salmonella spvC gene, encoding a phosphothreonine lyase on host mitogen-activated protein kinases, facilitates systemic infection of Salmonella while the precise mechanisms remain elusive. Autophagy and pyroptosis dependent on the activation of inflammasomes, as parts of innate immune response, contribute to host defense against Salmonella infection. Recently, we reported that spvC could inhibit pyroptosis. To explore the effect of spvC on autophagy and the relationship between its function in pyroptosis and autophagy, infection models of macrophages J774A.1 and epithelial HeLa cells co-cultured with Salmonella Typhimurium wild type, spvC deletion, site-directed mutant which lacks phosphothreonine lyase activity, or complemented strain were established. The levels of LC3 turnover and Beclin 1 of J774A.1 cells were determined by western blot. Confocal laser scanning microscopy was used to visualize the autophagic flux after being transfected with mRFP-GFP-LC3 plasmid in HeLa cells. Results showed that SpvC inhibited autophagosome formation through its phosphothreonine lyase activity. Additionally, analysis of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine-rich repeat and pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) and NLR with CARD domain-containing 4 (NLRC4) in J774A.1 cells indicated that spvC decreased the protein levels of NLRP3 and NLRC4, which were significantly changed by autophagy inhibitor Bafilomycin A1. Together, our observations reveal a novel mechanism of spvC in Salmonella pathogenesis and host inflammatory response via inhibiting autophagy and NLRP3 as well as NLRC4. These pathways and their subversion by diverse pathogen virulence determinants are expected to throw light on the design of anti-infective agents.

A novel hyperthermophilic methylglyoxal synthase: molecular dynamic analysis on the regional fluctuations.

Two putative methylglyoxal synthases, which catalyze the conversion of dihydroxyacetone phosphate to methylglyoxal, from Oceanithermus profundus DSM 14,977 and Clostridium difficile 630 have been characterized for activity and thermal stability. The enzyme from O. profundus was found to be hyperthermophilic, with the optimum activity at 80 °C and the residual activity up to 59% after incubation of 15 min at 95 °C, whereas the enzyme from C. difficile was mesophilic with the optimum activity at 40 °C and the residual activity less than 50% after the incubation at 55 °C or higher temperatures for 15 min. The structural analysis of the enzymes with molecular dynamics simulation indicated that the hyperthermophilic methylglyoxal synthase has a rigid protein structure with a lower overall root-mean-square-deviation value compared with the mesophilic or thermophilic counterparts. In addition, the simulation results identified distinct regions with high fluctuations throughout those of the mesophilic or thermophilic counterparts via root-mean-square-fluctuation analysis. Specific molecular interactions focusing on the hydrogen bonds and salt bridges in the distinct regions were analyzed in terms of interatomic distances and positions of the individual residues with respect to the secondary structures of the enzyme. Key interactions including specific salt bridges and hydrogen bonds between a rigid beta-sheet core and surrounding alpha helices were found to contribute to the stabilisation of the hyperthermophilic enzyme by reducing the regional fluctuations in the protein structure. The structural information and analysis approach in this study can be further exploited for the engineering and industrial application of the enzyme.

O-acetylhomoserine sulfhydrylase from Clostridium novyi. Cloning, expression of the gene and characterization of the enzyme.

The gene NT01CX_1210 of pathogenic bacterium Clostridium novyi annotated as encoding O-acetylhomoserine sulfhydrylase was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. The gene product having O-acetylhomoserine sulfhydrylase activity was purified to homogeneity. The protein showed molecular mass of approximately 184 kDa for the native form and 46 kDa for the subunit. The enzyme catalyzes the γ-substitution reaction of O-acetylhomoserine with maximum activity at pH 7.5. Analysis of C. novyi genome allowed us to suggest that there is only one way for the synthesis of l-methionine in the bacterium. The data obtained may provide the basis for further study of the role of OAHS in Clostridium bacteria and an ascertainment of its mechanism.

Antibiogram, Virulence Genes, and Biofilm-Forming Ability of Clinical Salmonella enterica Serovars: An In Vitro Study.

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi and Salmonella Paratyphi are causative agents of enteric fever. Salmonella Typhi persists as a biofilm on gallstones. Hence, we studied the biofilm formation, antibiogram, and virulence genes of S. enterica serovars. Antibiogram of S. enterica serovars from human blood and stool samples were studied by Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method and biofilm by microtiter plate method. We studied the minimum inhibitory concentration of the isolates by Vitek-2 semiautomated system. Polymerase chain reaction was done to detect invA and spvC genes. Of the 55 isolates studied, 36 (65.45%) were Salmonella Typhi, 13 (23.63%) were Salmonella Paratyphi A, 2 (3.64%) were Salmonella Typhimurium, and 4 (7.28%) were Salmonella spp. Resistance to ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid were found to be 81.8% and 92.7%, respectively. Chloramphenicol and cotrimoxazole-susceptible strains were 98.18%. One each of Salmonella Typhi, Salmonella Paratyphi A, and S. enterica isolates formed weak biofilm at 28°C. However, at 37°C eight Salmonella Typhi produced weak biofilm in the presence of bile. One Salmonella Paratyphi A and two Salmonella spp. formed weak biofilm in the absence of bile. All the isolates had the invA gene. Salmonella Typhimurium had invA and spvC genes. Bile may contribute to biofilm formation and persistence of the Salmonella Typhi on gallstones, which may lead to carrier state. Changing antibiotic susceptibility pattern of Salmonella serovars is observed in our geographic area. The presence of invA and spvC genes indicate the ability of invasiveness and intracellular survival.

Secretome Analysis of the Banana Fusarium Wilt Fungi Foc R1 and Foc TR4 Reveals a New Effector OASTL Required for Full Pathogenicity of Foc TR4 in Banana.

Banana Fusarium wilt (BFW), which is one of the most important banana diseases worldwide, is mainly caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense tropic race 4 (Foc TR4). In this study, we conducted secretome analysis of Foc R1 and Foc TR4 and discovered a total of 120 and 109 secretory proteins (SPs) from Foc R1 cultured alone or with banana roots, respectively, and 129 and 105 SPs respectively from Foc TR4 cultured under the same conditions. Foc R1 and Foc TR4 shared numerous SPs associated with hydrolase activity, oxidoreductase activity, and transferase activity. Furthermore, in culture with banana roots, Foc R1 and Foc TR4 secreted many novel SPs, of which approximately 90% (Foc R1; 57/66; Foc TR4; 50/55) were unconventional SPs without signal peptides. Comparative analysis of SPs in Foc R1 and Foc TR4 revealed that Foc TR4 not only generated more specific SPs but also had a higher proportion of SPs involved in various metabolic pathways, such as phenylalanine metabolism and cysteine and methionine metabolism. The cysteine biosynthesis enzyme O-acetylhomoserine (thiol)-lyase (OASTL) was the most abundant root inducible Foc TR4-specific SP. In addition, knockout of the OASTL gene did not affect growth of Foc TR4; but resulted in the loss of pathogenicity in banana 'Brazil'. We speculated that OASTL functions in banana by interfering with the biosynthesis of cysteine, which is the precursor of an enormous number of sulfur-containing defense compounds. Overall, our studies provide a basic understanding of the SPs in Foc R1 and Foc TR4; including a novel effector in Foc TR4.

Unlocking the biosynthesis of sesquiterpenoids from methane via the methylerythritol phosphate pathway in methanotrophic bacteria, using α-humulene as a model compound.

Isoprenoids are an abundant and diverse class of natural products with various applications in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics and biofuel industries. A methanotroph-based biorefinery is an attractive scenario for the production of a variety of value-added compounds from methane, because methane is a promising alternative feedstock for industrial biomanufacturing. In this study, we metabolically engineered Methylotuvimicrobium alcaliphilum 20Z for de novo synthesis of a sesquiterpenoid from methane, using α-humulene as a model compound, via optimization of the native methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway. Expression of codon-optimized α-humulene synthase from Zingiber zerumbet in M. alcaliphilum 20Z resulted in an initial yield of 0.04 mg/g dry cell weight. Overexpressing key enzymes (IspA, IspG, and Dxs) for debottlenecking of the MEP pathway increased α-humulene production 5.2-fold compared with the initial strain. Subsequently, redirecting the carbon flux through the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway resulted in an additional 3-fold increase in α-humulene production. Additionally, a genome-scale model using flux scanning based on enforced objective flux method was used to identify potential overexpression targets to increase flux towards isoprenoid production. Several target reactions from cofactor synthesis pathways were probed and evaluated for their effects on α-humulene synthesis, resulting in α-humulene yield up to 0.75 mg/g DCW with 18.8-fold enhancement from initial yield. This study first demonstrates production of a sesquiterpenoid from methane using methanotrophs as the biocatalyst and proposes potential strategies to enhance production of sesquiterpenoid and related isoprenoid products in engineered methanotrophic bacteria.

Transformation Foci in IDH1-mutated Gliomas Show STAT3 Phosphorylation and Downregulate the Metabolic Enzyme ETNPPL, a Negative Regulator of Glioma Growth.

IDH1-mutated gliomas are slow-growing brain tumours which progress into high-grade gliomas. The early molecular events causing this progression are ill-defined. Previous studies revealed that 20% of these tumours already have transformation foci. These foci offer opportunities to better understand malignant progression. We used immunohistochemistry and high throughput RNA profiling to characterize foci cells. These have higher pSTAT3 staining revealing activation of JAK/STAT signaling. They downregulate RNAs involved in Wnt signaling (DAAM2, SFRP2), EGFR signaling (MLC1), cytoskeleton and cell-cell communication (EZR, GJA1). In addition, foci cells show reduced levels of RNA coding for Ethanolamine-Phosphate Phospho-Lyase (ETNPPL/AGXT2L1), a lipid metabolism enzyme. ETNPPL is involved in the catabolism of phosphoethanolamine implicated in membrane synthesis. We detected ETNPPL protein in glioma cells as well as in astrocytes in the human brain. Its nuclear localization suggests additional roles for this enzyme. ETNPPL expression is inversely correlated to glioma grade and we found no ETNPPL protein in glioblastomas. Overexpression of ETNPPL reduces the growth of glioma stem cells indicating that this enzyme opposes gliomagenesis. Collectively, these results suggest that a combined alteration in membrane lipid metabolism and STAT3 pathway promotes IDH1-mutated glioma malignant progression.

The Salmonella type III effector SpvC triggers the reverse transmigration of infected cells into the bloodstream.

Salmonella can appear in the bloodstream within CD18 expressing phagocytes following oral ingestion in as little as 15 minutes. Here, we provide evidence that the process underlying this phenomenon is reverse transmigration. Reverse transmigration is a normal host process in which dendritic cells can reenter the bloodstream by traversing endothelium in the basal to apical direction. We have developed an in vitro reverse transmigration assay in which dendritic cells are given the opportunity to cross endothelial monolayers in the basal to apical direction grown on membranes with small pores, modeling how such cells can penetrate the bloodstream. We demonstrate that exposing dendritic cells to microbial components negatively regulates reverse transmigration. We propose that microbial components normally cause the host to toggle between positively and negatively regulating reverse transmigration, balancing the need to resolve inflammation with inhibiting the spread of microbes. We show that Salmonella in part overcomes this negative regulation of reverse transmigration with the Salmonella pathogenicity island-2 encoded type III secretion system, which increases reverse transmigration by over an order of magnitude. The SPI-2 type III secretion system does this in part, but not entirely by injecting the type III effector SpvC into infected cells. We further demonstrate that SpvC greatly promotes early extra-intestinal dissemination in mice. This result combined with the previous observation that the spv operon is conserved amongst strains of non-typhoidal Salmonella capable of causing bacteremia in humans suggests that this pathway to the bloodstream could be important for understanding human infections.

Threonine synthase CoTHR4 is involved in infection-related morphogenesis during the pre-penetration stage in Colletotrichum orbiculare.

Upon recognition of host plants, Colletotrichum orbiculare, an anthracnose disease fungus of cucurbitaceous plants, initiates morphological differentiation, including conidial germination and appressorium formation on the cuticle layer. The series of infection processes of C. orbiculare requires enormous nutrient and energy, but the surface of the cucurbitaceous hosts is hardly nutrient-rich. Hence, C. orbiculare must exert tight management of its intracellular nutrients in order to properly induce infection-related morphogenesis. Here, we carried out a large-scale insertional mutagenesis screen using Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation to identify novel genes involved in the pathogenicity of C. orbiculare and found that CoTHR4-encoded threonine synthase, a homolog of Saccharomyces cerevisiae THR4, is required for pathogenicity and conidiation in C. orbiculare. Threonine supplementation allowed the cothr4 mutant to produce conidia to a level equivalent to that of the wild-type. The conidia produced from the threonine-treated cothr4 mutant failed to germinate in the absence of threonine, but retained the ability to germinate and to form appressoria in the presence of threonine. However, the conidia produced from the threonine-treated cothr4 mutant remained attenuated in pathogenicity on cucumber cotyledons even in the presence of threonine. Cytorrhysis assays revealed that appressoria of the cothr4 mutant induced by exogenous threonine treatment showed low turgor generation. Taken together, these results showed that threonine synthase CoThr4 plays a pivotal role in infection-related morphogenesis during the pre-penetration stage of C. orbiculare.

Identification of O-acetylhomoserine sulfhydrylase, a putative enzyme responsible for methionine biosynthesis in Clostridioides difficile: Gene cloning and biochemical characterizations.

O-acetylhomoserine sulfhydrylase (OAHS) is a pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-dependent enzyme involved in microbial methionine biosynthesis. In this study, we report gene cloning, protein purification, and some biochemical characteristics of OAHS from Clostridioides difficile. The enzyme is a tetramer with molecular weight of 185 kDa. It possesses a high activity in the reaction of L-homocysteine synthesis, comparable to reported activities of OAHSes from other sources. OAHS activity is inhibited by metabolic end product L-methionine. L-Propargylglycine was found to be a suicide inhibitor of the enzyme. Substrate analogue Nγ -acetyl-L-2,4-diaminobutyric acid is a competitive inhibitor of OAHS with Ki = 0.04 mM. Analysis of C. difficile genome allows to suggest that the bacterium uses the way of direct sulfhydrylation for the synthesis of L-methionine. The data obtained may provide the basis for further study of the role of OAHS in the pathogenic bacterium and the development of potential inhibitors.

Mechanism of a Standalone ß-Lactone Synthetase: New Continuous Assay for a Widespread ANL Superfamily Enzyme.

Enzyme-catalyzed ß-lactone formation from ß-hydroxy acids is a crucial step in bacterial biosynthesis of ß-lactone natural products and membrane hydrocarbons. We developed a novel, continuous assay for ß-lactone synthetase activity using synthetic ß-hydroxy acid substrates with alkene or alkyne moieties. ß-Lactone formation is followed by rapid decarboxylation to form a conjugated triene chromophore for real-time evaluation by UV/Vis spectroscopy. The assay was used to determine steady-state kinetics of a long-chain ß-lactone synthetase, OleC, from the plant pathogen Xanthomonas campestris. Site-directed mutagenesis was used to test the involvement of conserved active site residues in Mg2+ and ATP binding. A previous report suggested OleC adenylated the substrate hydroxy group. Here we present several lines of evidence, including hydroxylamine trapping of the AMP intermediate, to demonstrate the substrate carboxyl group is adenylated prior to making the ß-lactone final product. A panel of nine substrate analogues were used to investigate the substrate specificity of X. campestris OleC by HPLC and GC-MS. Stereoisomers of 2-hexyl-3hydroxyoctanoic acid were synthesized and OleC preferred the (2R,3S) diastereomer consistent with the stereo-preference of upstream and downstream pathway enzymes. This biochemical knowledge was used to guide phylogenetic analysis of the ß-lactone synthetases to map their functional diversity within the acyl-CoA synthetase, NRPS adenylation domain, and luciferase superfamily.

Retrospective application of transposon-directed insertion-site sequencing to investigate niche-specific virulence of Salmonella Typhimurium in cattle.

BACKGROUND: Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica is an animal and zoonotic pathogen of global importance. Cattle are a significant reservoir of human non-typhoidal salmonellosis and can suffer enteric and systemic disease owing to the ability of Salmonella to survive within the bovine lymphatic system and intestines. Contamination of food can occur due to the incorporation of contaminated peripheral lymph nodes or by direct contamination of carcasses with gut contents. It is essential to understand the mechanisms used by Salmonella to enter and persist within the bovine lymphatic system and how they differ from those required for intestinal colonization to minimize zoonotic infections. RESULTS: Transposon-directed insertion site sequencing (TraDIS) was applied to pools of mutants recovered from mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) draining the distal ileum of calves after oral inoculation with a library of 8550 random S. Typhimurium mini-Tn5Km2 mutants in pools of 475 mutants per calf. A total of 8315 mutants representing 2852 different genes were detected in MLNs and their in vivo fitness was calculated. Using the same improved algorithm for analysis of transposon-flanking sequences, the identity and phenotype of mutants recovered from the distal ileal mucosa of the same calves was also defined, enabling comparison with previously published data and of mutant phenotypes across the tissues. Phenotypes observed for the majority of mutants were highly significantly correlated in the two tissues. However, 32 genes were identified in which transposon insertions consistently resulted in differential fitness in the ileal wall and MLNs, suggesting niche-specific roles for these genes in pathogenesis. Defined null mutations affecting ptsN and spvC were confirmed to result in tissue-specific phenotypes in calves, thus validating the TraDIS dataset. CONCLUSIONS: This validation of the role of thousands of Salmonella genes and identification of genes with niche-specific roles in a key target species will inform the design of control strategies for bovine salmonellosis and zoonotic infections, for which efficacious and cross-protective vaccines are currently lacking.

Identification of O-acetylserine(thiol)lyase (OASTL) genes in sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and gene expression analysis under cadmium stress.

Cysteine (Cys) is the first identified molecule in plant metabolism which includes both sulfur and nitrogen. It can be synthesized in three cellular compartments, containing chloroplast, cytoplasm and mitochondrion. The final step of cysteine biosynthesis is catalyzed by the O-acetylserine(thiol)lyase enzyme (OASTL, E.C. 4.2.99). In the present study, seven members of the OASTL gene family in the sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) genome were identified at a genome-wide scale and comparative bioinformatics analyses were performed between sorghum and Arabidopsis OASTLs. In all OASTL proteins, a pyridoxal-phosphate dependent domain structure (PALP, PF00291) was identified. The gene ontology annotations also revealed that all sorghum OASTL genes have KOG1252 (Cystathionine beta-synthase and related enzyme) and K01738 (cysteine synthase A) activities. In promotor sequences of OASTL genes, diverse cis-acting elements were found, including hormone and light responsiveness, abiotic stress responsiveness, and tissue-specific ones (meristem and endosperm). Sorghum OASTL genes demonstrated medium or high level expressions in anatomical parts and developmental stages based on the digital expression data. Expression of OASTL genes were also analyzed under cadmium (Cd) stress in sorghum by Real Time-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). The results exclusively showed that OASTL A1-2 gene was 1.12 fold up-regulated in roots, whereas cysteine synthase 26 was 2.25 fold down-regulated in leaves. The predicted 3D structure of OASTLs indicated some structural diversities as well as variations in the secondary structures.

Structure and Dynamics of a Promiscuous Xanthan Lyase from Paenibacillus nanensis and the Design of Variants with Increased Stability and Activity.

We have characterized the structure and dynamics of the carbohydrate-modifying enzyme Paenibacillus nanensis xanthan lyase (PXL) involved in the degradation of xanthan by X-ray crystallography, small-angle X-ray scattering, and hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry. Unlike other xanthan lyases, PXL is specific for both unmodified mannose and pyruvylated mannose, which we find is correlated with structural differences in the substrate binding groove. The structure of the full-length enzyme reveals two additional C-terminal modules, one of which belongs to a new non-catalytic carbohydrate binding module family. Ca2+ are critical for the activity and conformation of PXL, and we show that their removal by chelating agents results in localized destabilization/unfolding of particularly the C-terminal modules. We use the structure and the revealed impact of Ca2+ coordination on conformational dynamics to guide the engineering of PXL variants with increased activity and stability in a chelating environment, thus expanding the possibilities for industrial applications of PXL.

Characterization of the O-acetylserine(thiol)lyase gene family in Solanum lycopersicum L.

KEY MESSAGE: This research demonstrated the conservation and diversification of the functions of the O-acetylserine-(thiol) lyase gene family genes in Solanum lycopersicum L. Cysteine is the first sulfur-containing organic molecule generated by plants and is the precursor of many important biomolecules and defense compounds. Cysteine and its derivatives are also essential in various redox signaling-related processes. O-acetylserine(thiol)lyase (OASTL) proteins catalyze the last step of cysteine biosynthesis. Previously, researches focused mainly on OASTL proteins which were the most abundant or possessed the authentic OASTL activity, whereas few studies have ever given a comprehensive view of the functions of all the OASTL members in one specific species. Here, we characterized 8 genes belonging to the OASTL gene family from tomato genome (SlOAS2 to SlOAS9), including the sequence analyses, subcellular localization, enzymatic activity assays, expression patterns, as well as the interaction property with SATs. Apart from SlOAS3, all the other genes encoded OASTL-like proteins. Tomato OASTLs were differentially expressed during the development of tomato plants, and their encoded proteins had diverse compartmental distributions and functions. SlOAS5 and SlOAS6 catalyzed the biogenesis of cysteine in chloroplasts and in the cytosol, respectively, and this was in consistent with their interaction abilities with SlSATs. SlOAS4 catalyzed the generation of hydrogen sulfide, similar to its Arabidopsis ortholog, DES1. SlOAS2 also functioned as an L-cysteine desulfhydrase, but its expression pattern was very different from that of SlOAS4. Additionally, SlOAS8 might be a ß-cyanoalanine synthase in mitochondria, and the S-sulfocysteine synthase activity appeared lost in tomato plants. SlOAS7 exhibited a transactivational ability in yeast; while the subcellular localization of SlOAS9 was in the peroxisome and correlated with the process of leaf senescence, indicating that these two genes might have novel roles.

Lactobacillus casei expressing methylglyoxal synthase causes browning and heterocyclic amine formation in Parmesan cheese extract.

Undesired browning of Parmesan cheese can occur during the latter period of ripening and cold storage despite the relative absence of reducing sugars and high temperatures typically associated with Maillard browning. Highly reactive α-dicarbonyls such as methylglyoxal (MG) are products and accelerants of Maillard browning chemistry and can result from the microbial metabolism of sugars and AA by lactic acid bacteria. We demonstrate the effects of microbially produced MG in a model Parmesan cheese extract using a strain of Lactobacillus casei 12A engineered for inducible overexpression of MG synthase (mgsA) from Thermoanaerobacterium thermosaccharolyticum HG-8. Maximum induction of plasmid-born mgsA led to 1.6 mM MG formation in Parmesan cheese extract and its distinct discoloration. The accumulation of heterocyclic amines including ß-carboline derivatives arising from mgsA expression were determined by mass spectrometry. Potential MG-contributing reaction mechanisms for the formation of heterocyclic amines are proposed. These findings implicate nonstarter lactic acid bacteria may cause browning and influence nutritional aspects of Parmesan by enzymatic conversion of triosephosphates to MG. Moreover, these findings indicate that the microbial production of MG can lead to the formation of late-stage Maillard reaction products such as melanoidin and ß-carbolines, effectively circumventing the thermal requirement of the early- and intermediate- stage Maillard reaction. Therefore, the identification and control of offending microbiota may prevent late-stage browning of Parmesan. The gene mgsA may serve as a genetic biomarker for cheeses with a propensity to undergo MG-mediated browning.

Mechanistic Insight through Irreversible Inhibition: DNA Polymerase θ Uses a Common Active Site for Polymerase and Lyase Activities.

DNA polymerase Î¸ (Pol Î¸) is a multifunctional enzyme. It is nonessential in normal cells, but its upregulation in cancer cells correlates with cellular resistance to oxidative damage and poor prognosis. Pol Î¸ possesses polymerase activity and poorly characterized lyase activity. We examined the Pol Î¸ lyase activity on various abasic sites and determined that the enzyme is inactivated upon attempted removal of the oxidized abasic site commonly associated with C4'-oxidation (pC4-AP). Covalent modification of Pol Î¸ by the DNA lesion enabled determination of the primary nucleophile (Lys2383) responsible for Schiff base formation in the lyase reaction. Unlike some other base excision repair polymerases, Pol Î¸ uses a single active site for polymerase and lyase activity. Mutation of Lys2383 significantly reduces both enzyme activities but not DNA binding. Demonstration that Lys2383 is required for polymerase and lyase activities indicates that this residue is an Achilles heel for Pol Î¸ and suggests a path forward for designing inhibitors of this attractive anticancer target.

Cytokinin is involved in TPS22-mediated selenium tolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Background and Aims: Excess selenium (Se) is toxic to plants, but relatively little is known about the regulatory mechanism of plant Se tolerance. This study explored the role of the TPS22 gene in Se tolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana. Methods: Arabidopsis wild type and XVE mutant seeds were grown on half-strength MS media containing Na2SeO3 for screening of the Se-tolerant mutant tps22. The XVE T-DNA-tagged genomic sequence in tps22 was identified by TAIL-PCR. The TPS22 gene was transformed into the mutant tps22 and wild type plants using the flower infiltration method. Wild type, tps22 mutant and transgenic seedlings were cultivated on vertical plates for phenotype analysis, physiological index measurement and gene expression analysis. Key Results: We identified an Arabidopsis Se-tolerant mutant tps22 from the XVE pool lines, and cloned the gene which encodes the terpenoid synthase (TPS22). TPS22 was downregulated by Se stress, and loss-of-function of TPS22 resulted in decreased Se accumulation and enhanced Se tolerance; by contrast, overexpression of TPS22 showed similar traits to the wild type under Se stress. Further analysis revealed that TPS22 mediated Se tolerance through reduction of Se uptake and activation of metabolism detoxification, which decreased transcription of high-affinity transporters PHT1;1, PHT1;8 and PHT1;9 and significantly increased transcription of selenocysteine methyltransferase (SMT), respectively. Moreover, loss-of-function of TPS22 resulted in reduced cytokinin level and repression of cytokinin signalling components AHK3 and AHK4, and upregulation of ARR3, ARR15 and ARR16. Exogenous cytokinin increased transcription of PHT1;1, PHT2;1 and SMT and decreased Se tolerance of the tps22 mutant. In addition, enhanced Se resistance of the tps22 mutant was associated with glutathione (GSH). Conclusions: Se stress downregulated TPS22, which reduced endogenous cytokinin level, and then affected the key factors of Se uptake and metabolism detoxification. This cascade of events resulted in reduced Se accumulation and enhanced Se tolerance.

CYSTATHIONINE GAMMA-SYNTHASE activity in rice is developmentally regulated and strongly correlated with sulfate.

An important goal of rice cultivar development is improvement of protein quality, especially with respect to essential amino acids such as methionine. With the goal of increasing seed methionine content, we generated Oryza sativa ssp. japonica cv. Taipei 309 transgenic lines expressing a feedback-desensitized CYSTATHIONINE GAMMA-SYNTHASE from Arabidopsis thaliana (AtD-CGS) under the control of the maize ubiquitin promoter. Despite persistently elevated cystathionine gamma-synthase (CGS) activity in the AtD-CGS transgenic lines relative to untransformed Taipei, sulfate was the only sulfur-containing compound found to be elevated throughout vegetative development. Accumulation of methionine and other sulfur-containing metabolites was limited to the leaves of young plants. Sulfate concentration was found to strongly and positively correlate with CGS activity across vegetative development, irrespective of whether the activity was provided by the endogenous rice CGS or by a combination of endogenous and AtD-CGS. Conversely, the concentrations of glutathione, valine, and leucine were clearly negatively correlated with CGS activity in the same tissues. We also observed a strong decrease in CGS activity in both untransformed Taipei and the AtD-CGS transgenic lines as the plants approached heading stage. The mechanism for this downregulation is currently unknown and of potential importance for efforts to increase methionine content in rice.