Hypoxia Modulates Cellular Endocytic Pathways and Organelles with Enhanced Cell Migration and 3D Cell Invasion.

Hypoxia, a decrease in cellular or tissue level oxygen content, is characteristic of most tumors and has been shown to drive cancer progression by altering multiple subcellular processes. We hypothesized that the cancer cells in a hypoxic environment might have slower proliferation rates and increased invasion and migration rates with altered endocytosis compared to the cancer cells in the periphery of the tumor mass that experience normoxic conditions. We induced cellular hypoxia by exposing cells to cobalt chloride, a chemical hypoxic mimicking agent. This study measured the effect of hypoxia on cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Uptake of fluorescently labeled transferrin, galectin3, and dextran that undergo endocytosis through major endocytic pathways (Clathrin-mediated pathway (CME), Clathrin-independent pathway (CIE), Fluid phase endocytosis (FPE)) were analyzed during hypoxia. Also, the organelle changes associated with hypoxia were studied with organelle trackers. We found that the proliferation rate decreased, and the migration and invasion rate increased in cancer cells in hypoxic conditions compared to normoxic cancer cells. A short hypoxic exposure increased galectin3 uptake in hypoxic cancer cells, but a prolonged hypoxic exposure decreased clathrin-independent endocytic uptake of galectin 3. Subcellular organelles, such as mitochondria, increased to withstand the hypoxic stress, while other organelles, such as Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), were significantly decreased. These data suggest that hypoxia modulates cellular endocytic pathways with reduced proliferation and enhanced cell migration and invasion.

Uranium uptake is mediated markedly by clathrin-mediated endocytosis and induce dose-dependent toxicity in HK-2 cells.

The objective of this study was to explore the endocytosis mechanisms of uranium uptake in HK-2 cells and its toxic effects. Our results demonstrated that uranium exposure impairs redox homeostasis and increases the permeability of the cell membrane and mitochondrial membrane, which may induce cell apoptosis by cytochrome-c leakage. Alkaline phosphatase activity increased after uranium exposure, which may be involved in the process of intracellular mineralisation of uranium, leading to severe cell necrosis. Furthermore, our findings demonstrated that the clathrin-mediated endocytosis process contributed substantially to uranium uptake in HK-2 cells and the total uranium uptake was highly correlated with cell viability, reaching a high correlation coefficient (r = -0.853) according to Pearson correlation analysis. In conclusion, the uptake of uranium into mammalian cells was mainly facilitated by the clathrin-mediated endocytosis pathway and induced dose-dependent cellular toxicity, including redox homeostasis imbalance, membrane injury, cell apoptosis and necrosis.

An Alternative Mechanism of Subcellular Iron Uptake Deficiency in Cardiomyocytes.

BACKGROUND: Systemic defects in intestinal iron absorption, circulation, and retention cause iron deficiency in 50% of patients with heart failure. Defective subcellular iron uptake mechanisms that are independent of systemic absorption are incompletely understood. The main intracellular route for iron uptake in cardiomyocytes is clathrin-mediated endocytosis. METHODS: We investigated subcellular iron uptake mechanisms in patient-derived and CRISPR/Cas-edited induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes as well as patient-derived heart tissue. We used an integrated platform of DIA-MA (mass spectrometry data-independent acquisition)-based proteomics and signaling pathway interrogation. We employed a genetic induced pluripotent stem cell model of 2 inherited mutations (TnT [troponin T]-R141W and TPM1 [tropomyosin 1]-L185F) that lead to dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), a frequent cause of heart failure, to study the underlying molecular dysfunctions of DCM mutations. RESULTS: We identified a druggable molecular pathomechanism of impaired subcellular iron deficiency that is independent of systemic iron metabolism. Clathrin-mediated endocytosis defects as well as impaired endosome distribution and cargo transfer were identified as a basis for subcellular iron deficiency in DCM-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes. The clathrin-mediated endocytosis defects were also confirmed in the hearts of patients with DCM with end-stage heart failure. Correction of the TPM1-L185F mutation in DCM patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells, treatment with a peptide, Rho activator II, or iron supplementation rescued the molecular disease pathway and recovered contractility. Phenocopying the effects of the TPM1-L185F mutation into WT induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes could be ameliorated by iron supplementation. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that impaired endocytosis and cargo transport resulting in subcellular iron deficiency could be a relevant pathomechanism for patients with DCM carrying inherited mutations. Insight into this molecular mechanism may contribute to the development of treatment strategies and risk management in heart failure.

Clomipramine inhibits dynamin GTPase activity by L-α-phosphatidyl-L-serine stimulation.

Three dynamin isoforms play critical roles in clathrin-dependent endocytosis. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) enters host cells via clathrin-dependent endocytosis. We previously reported that 3-(3-chloro-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo[b,f]azepin-5-yl)-N,N-dimethylpropan-1-amine (clomipramine) inhibits the GTPase activity of dynamin 1, which is in mainly neuron. Therefore, we investigated whether clomipramine inhibits the activity of other dynamin isoforms in this study. We found that, similar to its inhibitory effect on dynamin 1, clomipramine inhibited the l-α-phosphatidyl-l-serine-stimulated GTPase activity of dynamin 2, which is expressed ubiquitously, and dynamin 3, which is expressed in the lung. Inhibition of GTPase activity raises the possibility that clomipramine can suppress SARS-CoV-2 entry into host cells.

Wiskostatin and other carbazole scaffolds as off target inhibitors of dynamin I GTPase activity and endocytosis.

Wiskostatin (1-(3,6-dibromo-9H-carbazol-9-yl)-3-(dimethylamino)propan-2-ol) (1) is a carbazole-based compound reported as a specific and relatively potent inhibitor of the N-WASP actin remodelling complex (S-isomer EC50 = 4.35 µM; R-isomer EC50 = 3.44 µM). An NMR solution structure showed that wiskostatin interacts with a cleft in the regulatory GTPase binding domain of N-WASP. However, numerous studies have reported wiskostatin's actions on membrane transport and cytokinesis that are independent of the N-WASP-Arp2/3 complex pathway, but offer limited alternative explanation. The large GTPase, dynamin has established functional roles in these pathways. This study reveals that wiskostatin and its analogues, as well as other carbazole-based compounds, are inhibitors of helical dynamin GTPase activity and endocytosis. We characterise the effects of wiskostatin on in vitro dynamin GTPase activity, in-cell endocytosis, and determine the importance of wiskostatin functional groups on these activities through design and synthesis of libraries of wiskostatin analogues. We also examine whether other carbazole-based scaffolds frequently used in research or the clinic also modulate dynamin and endocytosis. Understanding off-targets for compounds used as research tools is important to be able to confidently interpret their action on biological systems, particularly when the target and off-targets affect overlapping mechanisms (e.g. cytokinesis and endocytosis). Herein we demonstrate that wiskostatin is a dynamin inhibitor (IC50 20.7 ± 1.2 µM) and a potent inhibitor of clathrin mediated endocytosis (IC50 = 6.9 ± 0.3 µM). Synthesis of wiskostatin analogues gave rise to 1-(9H-carbazol-9-yl)-3-((4-methylbenzyl)amino)propan-2-ol (35) and 1-(9H-carbazol-9-yl)-3-((4-chlorobenzyl)amino)propan-2-ol (43) as potent dynamin inhibitors (IC50 = 1.0 ± 0.2 µM), and (S)-1-(3,6-dibromo-9H-carbazol-9-yl)-3-(dimethylamino)propan-2-ol (8a) and (R)-1-(3,6-dibromo-9H-carbazol-9-yl)-3-(dimethylamino)propan-2-ol (8b) that are amongst the most potent inhibitors of clathrin mediated endocytosis yet reported (IC50 = 2.3 ± 3.3 and 2.1 ± 1.7 µM, respectively).

The stimulatory effect and mechanism of low-dose lanthanum on soybean leaf cells.

Light rare earth elements (LREEs) have been long used in agriculture (i.e., mainly via aerially applied LREE fertilizers) based on the fact that low-dose LREEs promote plant growth. Meanwhile, the toxic effects of low-dose LREEs on organisms have also been found. However, the cellular and molecular mechanism of low-dose LREEs acting on organisms remain unclear. Plants are at the beginning of food chains, so it is critical to uncover the cellular and molecular mechanism of low-dose LREEs on plants. Here, lanthanum (La) and soybean were the representatives of LREEs and plants, respectively. The effects of low-dose La on soybean leaves were investigated, and the stimulatory effect and mechanism of low-dose LREEs on leaf cells were revealed. Specifically, clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) activated by low-dose La is an influx channel for La in soybean leaf cells. The intracellular La and La-activated CME jointly disturbed multiple forms of intracellular homeostasis, including metallic element homeostasis, redox homeostasis, gene expression homeostasis. The disturbed homeostasis either stimulated cell growth or caused damage to the plasma membrane of soybean leaf cells. These results provide new insights for clarifying the cellular and molecular mechanisms of low-dose LREEs as a class of stimulators instead of nutrients to stimulate plants.

Novel roles for Arabidopsis dynamin-related proteins DRP1A and DRP2B in resistance against Botrytis cinerea fungal infection.

Arabidopsis DYNAMIN-RELATED PROTEIN1A (AtDRP1A) and AtDRP2B are large GTPases that function together in endocytosis for effective cytokinesis, cell enlargement and development. A recent study shows that these DRPs contribute to ligand-induced endocytosis of the immune receptor FLAGELLIN SENSING2 (AtFLS2) to modulate flg22-immune signaling, and they are required for immunity against Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato bacteria. Here, we demonstrate that atdrp1a and atdrp2b single mutants showed increased susceptibility to Botrytis cinerea indicating that AtDRP1A and AtDRP2B are necessary for effective resistance against this necrotrophic fungus. Thus, we expanded our limited understanding of clathrin endocytic accessory proteins in immunity against plant pathogens.

Ursolic acid-piperazine-dithiocarbamate ruthenium(II) polypyridyl complexes induced necroptosis in MGC-803 cells.

Three ursolic acid-piperazine-dithiocarbamate ruthenium(II) polypyridyl complexes Ru1-Ru3 were designed and synthesized for evaluating antitumor activity. All the complexes exhibited high in vitro cytotoxicity against MGC-803, T24, HepG2, CNE2, MDA-MB-231, MCF-7, A549, and A549/DDP cell lines. Ru1, Ru2, and Ru3 were 11, 8 and 10 times, respectively, more active than cisplatin against A549/DDP. An in vivo study on MGC-803 xenograft mouse models demonstrated that representative Ru2 exhibited an effective inhibitory effect on tumor growth, showing stronger antitumor activity than cisplatin. Biological investigations suggested that Ru2 entered MGC-803 cells by a clathrin-mediated endocytic pathway, initially localizing in the lysosomes and subsequently escaping and localizing in the mitochondria. Mitochondrial swelling resulted in vacuolization, which induced vacuolation-associated cell death and necroptosis with the formation of necrosomes (RIP1-RIP3) and the uptake of propidium iodide. These results demonstrate that the potential of Ru2 as a chemotherapeutic agent to kill cancer cells via a dual mechanism represents an alternative way to eradicate apoptosis-resistant forms of cancer.

In vivo and in vitro toxicity of a stainless-steel aerosol generated during thermal spray coating.

Thermal spray coating is an industrial process in which molten metal is sprayed at high velocity onto a surface as a protective coating. An automated electric arc wire thermal spray coating aerosol generator and inhalation exposure system was developed to simulate an occupational exposure and, using this system, male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to stainless steel PMET720 aerosols at 25 mg/m3 × 4 h/day × 9 day. Lung injury, inflammation, and cytokine alteration were determined. Resolution was assessed by evaluating these parameters at 1, 7, 14 and 28 d after exposure. The aerosols generated were also collected and characterized. Macrophages were exposed in vitro over a wide dose range (0-200 µg/ml) to determine cytotoxicity and to screen for known mechanisms of toxicity. Welding fumes were used as comparative particulate controls. In vivo lung damage, inflammation and alteration in cytokines were observed 1 day post exposure and this response resolved by day 7. Alveolar macrophages retained the particulates even after 28 day post-exposure. In line with the pulmonary toxicity findings, in vitro cytotoxicity and membrane damage in macrophages were observed only at the higher doses. Electron paramagnetic resonance showed in an acellular environment the particulate generated free radicals and a dose-dependent increase in intracellular oxidative stress and NF-kB/AP-1 activity was observed. PMET720 particles were internalized via clathrin and caveolar mediated endocytosis as well as actin-dependent pinocytosis/phagocytosis. The results suggest that compared to stainless steel welding fumes, the PMET 720 aerosols were not as overtly toxic, and the animals recovered from the acute pulmonary injury by 7 days.

Silver nanoparticles' impact on the gene expression of the cytosolic adaptor MyD-88 and the interferon regulatory factor IRF in the gills and digestive gland of mytilus galloprovincialis.

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have been reported as stressors for the bivalves' immune system at different regulatory levels, impacting the detection step and receptors, and other mediators, as well as effector molecules. However, studies on how AgNPs impact the transmission of signals from receptors and whether they have an effect on mediators and transcription factors are still scarce. This study aims to investigate the effect of 12 hours of in vivo exposure to 100 µg/L of AgNPs on the gene expression of the cytosolic adaptor Myeloid, the differentiation protein 88 (MgMyD88-b), and the interferon regulatory factor (Me4-IRF) in the gills and digestive gland of Mytilus galloprovincialis, before and after blocking two major uptake pathways of nanoparticles (clathrin- and caveolae-mediated endocytosis). The results illustrate a tissue-specific gene expression of the MgMyD88-b and the Me4-IRF in the gills and digestive gland of M. galloprovincialis. In the gills, AgNPs did not significantly impact the expression of the two genes. However, blocking the caveolae-mediated endocytosis decreased the expression of Me4-IRF. However, inhibition of clathrin-mediated endocytosis in the digestive gland recorded a significant decrease in the expression of MgMyD88-b. Overall, the inhibition of the AgNPs' uptake routes have highlighted their potential interference with the immune response through the studied mediators' genes, which need to be studied further in future investigations.

De novo endocytic clathrin coats develop curvature at early stages of their formation.

Sculpting a flat patch of membrane into an endocytic vesicle requires curvature generation on the cell surface, which is the primary function of the endocytosis machinery. Using super-resolved live cell fluorescence imaging, we demonstrate that curvature generation by individual clathrin-coated pits can be detected in real time within cultured cells and tissues of developing organisms. Our analyses demonstrate that the footprint of clathrin coats increases monotonically during the formation of pits at different levels of plasma membrane tension. These findings are only compatible with models that predict curvature generation at the early stages of endocytic clathrin pit formation. We also found that CALM adaptors associated with clathrin plaques form clusters, whereas AP2 distribution is more homogenous. Considering the curvature sensing and driving roles of CALM, we propose that CALM clusters may increase the strain on clathrin lattices locally, eventually giving rise to rupture and subsequent pit completion at the edges of plaques.

Nebulised surface-active hybrid nanoparticles of voriconazole for pulmonary Aspergillosis demonstrate clathrin-mediated cellular uptake, improved antifungal efficacy and lung retention.

BACKGROUND: Incidence of pulmonary aspergillosis is rising worldwide, owing to an increased population of immunocompromised patients. Notable potential of the pulmonary route has been witnessed in antifungal delivery due to distinct advantages of direct lung targeting and first-pass evasion. The current research reports biomimetic surface-active lipid-polymer hybrid (LPH) nanoparticles (NPs) of voriconazole, employing lung-specific lipid, i.e., dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine and natural biodegradable polymer, i.e., chitosan, to augment its pulmonary deposition and retention, following nebulization. RESULTS: The developed nanosystem exhibited a particle size in the range of 228-255 nm and drug entrapment of 45-54.8%. Nebulized microdroplet characterization of NPs dispersion revealed a mean diameter of ≤ 5 µm, corroborating its deep lung deposition potential as determined by next-generation impactor studies. Biophysical interaction of LPH NPs with lipid-monolayers indicated their surface-active potential and ease of intercalation into the pulmonary surfactant membrane at the air-lung interface. Cellular viability and uptake studies demonstrated their cytocompatibility and time-and concentration-dependent uptake in lung-epithelial A549 and Calu-3 cells with clathrin-mediated internalization. Transepithelial electrical resistance experiments established their ability to penetrate tight airway Calu-3 monolayers. Antifungal studies on laboratory strains and clinical isolates depicted their superior efficacy against Aspergillus species. Pharmacokinetic studies revealed nearly 5-, 4- and threefolds enhancement in lung AUC, Tmax, and MRT values, construing significant drug access and retention in lungs. CONCLUSIONS: Nebulized LPH NPs were observed as a promising solution to provide effective and safe therapy for the management of pulmonary aspergillosis infection with improved patient compliance and avoidance of systemic side-effects.

Functional recruitment of dynamin requires multimeric interactions for efficient endocytosis.

During clathrin mediated endocytosis (CME), the concerted action of dynamin and its interacting partners drives membrane scission. Essential interactions occur between the proline/arginine-rich domain of dynamin (dynPRD) and the Src-homology domain 3 (SH3) of various proteins including amphiphysins. Here we show that multiple SH3 domains must bind simultaneously to dynPRD through three adjacent motifs for dynamin's efficient recruitment and function. First, we show that mutant dynamins modified in a single motif, including the central amphiphysin SH3 (amphSH3) binding motif, partially rescue CME in dynamin triple knock-out cells. However, mutating two motifs largely prevents that ability. Furthermore, we designed divalent dynPRD-derived peptides. These ligands bind multimers of amphSH3 with >100-fold higher affinity than monovalent ones in vitro. Accordingly, dialyzing living cells with these divalent peptides through a patch-clamp pipette blocks CME much more effectively than with monovalent ones. We conclude that dynamin drives vesicle scission via multivalent interactions in cells.

The interaction of assembly protein AP180 and clathrin is inhibited by multi-site phospho-mimetics.

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis at the nerve terminal is dependent on assembly protein 180 (AP180) and adapter protein complex 2 (AP2). Both membrane adapter proteins bind to each other and to clathrin, to drive assembly of the clathrin coat over nascent synaptic vesicles. Using knowledge of in vivo phosphorylation sites, AP180 was mutated to determine the effect on binding. N-terminally truncated AP180 exhibited phospho-mimetic (Ser/Thr to Glu)-dependent interaction with AP2, but not clathrin. C-terminally truncated and full length phospho-mutant AP180 bound less AP2 than wild type. However, there was no difference in AP2 binding for the phospho-mimetic or phospho-deficient (Ser/Thr to Ala) AP180 mutants. Thus, the phospho-mutant approach did not provide clarity for the role of phosphorylation in AP180-AP2 binding. Clathrin exhibited a phospho-mimetic-dependent interaction with full-length AP180. Furthermore, phospho-mimetic AP180 was deficient at assembling clathrin cages. These latter discoveries support a model where AP180 phosphorylation inhibits clathrin binding and assembly.

Nanotherapeutics with suitable properties for advanced anticancer therapy based on HPMA copolymer-bound ritonavir via pH-sensitive spacers.

Ritonavir (RIT) is a widely used antiviral drug that acts as an HIV protease inhibitor with emerging potential in anticancer therapies. RIT causes inhibition of P-glycoprotein, which plays an important role in multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer cells when overexpressed. Moreover, RIT causes mitochondrial dysfunction, leading to decreased ATP production and reduction of caveolin I expression, which can affect cell migration and tumor progression. To increase its direct antitumor activity, decrease severe side effects induced by the use of free RIT and improve its pharmacokinetics, ritonavir 5-methyl-4-oxohexanoate (RTV) was synthesized and conjugated to a tumor-targeted polymer carrier based on a N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide (HPMA) copolymer. Here we demonstrated that polymer-bound RTV enhanced the internalization of polymer-RTV conjugates, differing in RTV content from 4 to 15 wt%, in HeLa cancer cells compared with polymer without RTV. The most efficient influx and internalization properties were determined for the polymer conjugate bearing 11 wt% of RTV. This conjugate was internalized by cells using both caveolin- and clathrin-dependent endocytic pathways in contrast to the RTV-free polymer, which was preferentially internalized only by clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Moreover, we found the co-localization of the RTV-conjugate with mitochondria and a significant decrease of ATP production in treated cells. Thus, the impact on mitochondrial mechanism can influence the function of ATP-dependent P-glycoprotein and also the cell viability of MDR cancer cells. Overall, this study demonstrated that the polymer-RTV conjugate is a promising polymer-based nanotherapeutic, suitable for antitumor combination therapy with other anticancer drugs and a potential mitochondrial drug delivery system.

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis is required for ANE 30-100K-induced autophagy.

BACKGROUND: We identified an autophagy-inducing areca nut (AN) ingredient (AIAI) in the 30-100 kDa fraction of AN extract (ANE 30-100K). This study was to analyze the role of endocytosis in ANE 30-100K-induced autophagy. METHODS: We used benzyl alcohol, dynasore, and shRNA of clathrin and dynamin to assess whether ANE 30-100K-induced cytotoxicity and accumulation of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3)-II were affected in oral (OECM-1) and esophageal (CE81T/VGH) carcinoma cells. RESULTS: Both benzyl alcohol and dynasore effectively reduced ANE 30-100K-induced cytotoxicity and LC3-II accumulation in OECM-1 and CE81T/VGH cells. Downregulated protein expression of both clathrin and dynamin by their shRNA also significantly attenuated ANE 30-100K-induced elevation of LC3-II levels in CE81T/VGH cells. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that AIAI may be engulfed by cells through clathrin-mediated endocytosis, which promotes the execution of the following autophagy program.

Endocytosis is required for exocytosis and priming of respiratory burst activity in human neutrophils.

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN: Neutrophil generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is enhanced by exposure to pro-inflammatory agents in a process termed priming. Priming is depending on exocytosis of neutrophil granules and p47phox phosphorylation-dependent translocation of cytosolic NADPH oxidase components. Clathrin-mediated endocytosis was recently reported to be necessary for priming, but the mechanism linking endocytosis to priming was not identified. The present study examined the hypothesis that endocytosis regulates neutrophil priming by controlling granule exocytosis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Clathrin-mediated endocytosis by isolated human neutrophils was inhibited by chlorpromazine, monodansylcadaverine, and sucrose. Exocytosis of granule subsets was measured as release of granule components by ELISA or chemiluminescence. ROS generation was measured as extracellular release of superoxide as reduction of ferrocytochrome c. p38 MAPK activation and p47phox phosphorylation were measured by immunoblot analysis. Statistical analysis was performed using a one-way ANOVA with the Tukey-Kramer multiple-comparison test. RESULTS: Inhibition of endocytosis prevented priming of superoxide release by TNFα and inhibited TNFα stimulation and priming of exocytosis of all four granule subsets. Inhibition of endocytosis did not reduce TNFα-stimulated p38 MAPK activation or p47phox phosphorylation. Inhibition of NADPH oxidase activity blocked TNFα stimulation of secretory vesicle and gelatinase granule exocytosis. CONCLUSIONS: Endocytosis is linked to priming of respiratory burst activity through ROS-mediated control of granule exocytosis.

Epidermal Growth Factor Enhances Cellular Uptake of Polystyrene Nanoparticles by Clathrin-Mediated Endocytosis.

The interaction between nanoparticles and cells has been studied extensively, but most research has focused on the effect of various nanoparticle characteristics, such as size, morphology, and surface charge, on the cellular uptake of nanoparticles. In contrast, there have been very few studies to assess the influence of cellular factors, such as growth factor responses, on the cellular uptake efficiency of nanoparticles. The aim of this study was to clarify the effects of epidermal growth factor (EGF) on the uptake efficiency of polystyrene nanoparticles (PS NPs) by A431 cells, a human carcinoma epithelial cell line. The results showed that EGF enhanced the uptake efficiency of A431 cells for PS NPs. In addition, inhibition and localization studies of PS NPs and EGF receptors (EGFRs) indicated that cellular uptake of PS NPs is related to the binding of EGF-EGFR complex and PS NPs. Different pathways are used to enter the cells depending on the presence or absence of EGF. In the presence of EGF, cellular uptake of PS NPs is via clathrin-mediated endocytosis, whereas, in the absence of EGF, uptake of PS NPs does not involve clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Our findings indicate that EGF enhances cellular uptake of PS NPs by clathrin-mediated endocytosis. This result could be important for developing safe nanoparticles and their safe use in medical applications.

Comparative Proteomics Reveals Differences in Host-Pathogen Interaction between Infectious and Commensal Relationship with Campylobacter jejuni.

Campylobacter jejuni is the leading food-borne poisoning in industrialized countries. While the bacteria causes disease in humans, it merely colonizes the gut in poultry or pigs, where seems to establish a commensal relationship. Until now, few studies have been conducted to elucidate the relationship between C. jejuni and its different hosts. In this work, a comparative proteomics approach was used to identify the underlying mechanisms involved in the divergent outcome following C. jejuni infection in human and porcine host. Human (INT-407) and porcine (IPEC-1) intestinal cell lines were infected by C. jejuni for 3 h (T3h) and 24 h (T24h). C. jejuni infection prompted an intense inflammatory response at T3h in human intestinal cells, mainly characterized by expression of proteins involved in cell spreading, cell migration and promotion of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Proteomic analysis evidenced significantly regulated biofunctions in human cells related with engulfment and endocytosis, and supported by canonical pathways associated to infection such as caveolar- and clathrin-mediated endocytosis signaling. In porcine IPEC-1 cells, inflammatory response as well as signaling pathways that control cellular functions such as cell migration, endocytosis and cell cycle progression resulted downregulated. These differences in the host response to infection were supported by the different pattern of adhesion and invasion proteins expressed by C. jejuni in human and porcine cells. No marked differences in expression of virulence factors involved in adaptive response and iron acquisition functions were observed. Therefore, the results of this study suggest that both host and pathogen factors are responsible for commensal or infectious character of C. jejuni in different hosts.

Clathrin-Dependent Uptake of Paraquat into SH-SY5Y Cells and Its Internalization into Different Subcellular Compartments.

The herbicide paraquat (PQ) is an exogenous toxin that allows the selective activation of dopaminergic neurons in the mesencephalon to induce injury and also causes its apoptosis in vitro. However, uptake mechanisms between PQ and neurons remain elusive. To address this issue, we undertook a study of PQ endocytosis in a dopaminergic SH-SY5Y cell line as well as explored the subsequent subcellular location and potential functional analysis of PQ. The PQ was found to bind the SH-SY5Y cell membrane and then became internalized via a clathrin-dependent pathway. PQ was internalized by many subcellular organelles in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Interestingly, the taken up PQ and secretogranin III (SCG3), which became dysregulated with PQ treatment that induced SH-SY5Y apoptosis in our previous study, colocalized in cytoplasmic vesicles. Taken together, our findings indicate that PQ is endocytosed by SH-SY5Y cells and that its multiple, subcellular localizations indicate PQ may potentially be involved in subcellular-level functions. More importantly, PQ distributing preferentially into SCG3-positive vesicles demonstrates its selective targeting which may affect SCG3 and cargoes carried by SCG3-positive vesicles. Therefore, it is reasonable to infer that PQ toxic insults may potentially interfere with neurotransmitter storage and transport associated with secretory granules.