Neuroprotective effects of quinpirole on lithium chloride pilocarpine-induced epilepsy in rats and its underlying mechanisms.

INTRODUCTION: Epilepsy is a common neurological disorder that presents with challenging mechanisms and treatment strategies. This study investigated the neuroprotective effects of quinpirole on lithium chloride pilocarpine-induced epileptic rats and explored its potential mechanisms. METHODS: Lithium chloride pilocarpine was used to induce an epileptic model in rats, and the effects of quinpirole on seizure symptoms and cognitive function were evaluated. The Racine scoring method, electroencephalography, and Morris water maze test were used to assess seizure severity and learning and memory functions in rats in the epileptic group. Additionally, immunohistochemistry and Western blot techniques were used to analyze the protein expression levels and morphological changes in glutamate receptor 2 (GluR2; GRIA2), BAX, and BCL2 in the hippocampi of rats in the epileptic group. RESULTS: First, it was confirmed that the symptoms in rats in the epileptic group were consistent with features of epilepsy. Furthermore, these rats demonstrated decreased learning and memory function in the Morris water maze test. Additionally, gene and protein levels of GluR2 in the hippocampi of rats in the epileptic group were significantly reduced. Quinpirole treatment significantly delayed seizure onset and decreased the mortality rate after the induction of a seizure. Furthermore, electroencephalography showed a significant decrease in the frequency of the spike waves. In the Morris water maze test, rats from the quinpirole treatment group demonstrated a shorter latency period to reach the platform and an increased number of crossings through the target quadrant. Network pharmacology analysis revealed a close association between quinpirole and GluR2 as well as its involvement in the cAMP signaling pathway, cocaine addiction, and dopaminergic synapses. Furthermore, immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis showed that quinpirole treatment resulted in a denser arrangement and a more regular morphology of the granule cells in the hippocampi of rats in the epileptic group. Additionally, quinpirole treatment decreased the protein expression of BAX and increased the protein expression of BCL2. CONCLUSION: The current study demonstrated that quinpirole exerted neuroprotective effects in the epileptic rat model induced by lithium chloride pilocarpine. Additionally, it was found that the treatment not only alleviated the rats' seizure symptoms, but also improved their learning and memory abilities. This improvement was linked to the modulation of protein expression levels of GLUR2, BAX, and BCL2. These findings provided clues that would be important for further investigation of the therapeutic potential of quinpirole and its underlying mechanisms for epilepsy treatment.

Valproate and lithium: Old drugs for new pharmacological approaches in brain tumors?

Beyond its use as an antiepileptic drug, over time valproate has been increasingly used for several other therapeutic applications. Among these, the antineoplastic effects of valproate have been assessed in several in vitro and in vivo preclinical studies, suggesting that this agent significantly inhibits cancer cell proliferation by modulating multiple signaling pathways. During the last years various clinical trials have tried to find out if valproate co-administration could enhance the antineoplastic activity of chemotherapy in glioblastoma patients and in patients suffering from brain metastases, demonstrating that the inclusion of valproate in the therapeutic schedule causes an improved median overall survival in some studies, but not in others. Thus, the effects of the use of concomitant valproate in brain cancer patients are still controversial. Similarly, lithium has been tested as an anticancer drug in several preclinical studies mainly using the unregistered formulation of lithium chloride salts. Although, there are no data showing that the anticancer effects of lithium chloride are superimposable to the registered lithium carbonate, this formulation has shown preclinical activity in glioblastoma and hepatocellular cancers. However, few but interesting clinical trials have been performed with lithium carbonate on a very small number of cancer patients. Based on published data, valproate could represent a potential complementary therapeutic approach to enhance the anticancer activity of brain cancer standard chemotherapy. Same advantageous characteristics are less convincing for lithium carbonate. Therefore, the planning of specific phase III studies is necessary to validate the repositioning of these drugs in present and future oncological research.

Gentiopicroside alleviated epileptogenesis in immature rats through inactivation of NLRP3 inflammasome by inhibiting P2X7R expression.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to elucidate the effects of Gentiopicroside (Gent) on epileptogenesis and underlying mechanisms. METHODS: The status epilepticus (SE) model was established by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of lithium chloride (127 mg/kg) and pilocarpine (50 mg/kg) in immature rats. HAPI microglial cellular inflammation model was induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 1 µg/ml) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP, 5 mM). The differential concentrations of Gent were used to pretreat animal (200, 400, and 800 mg/kg) and model cells (50, 100, and 200 µM). Epileptic discharges were assessed by electroencephalography (EEG) and Racine scale. Changes in spatial memory function were measured using the Morris water maze task test. Nissl and FJB staining were employed to assess the damage to hippocampus tissues. ELISA was used to detect the production of IL-1ß, IL-18, and TNF-α. The expressions of P2X7R and NLRP3 were detected by q-PCR, immunofluorescence staining, and Western blot, and cell viability was determined by cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8). RESULTS: Lithium chloride and pilocarpine (LICL-PILO) induced abnormal EEG activities, behavioral alterations, brain damage, and inflammatory responses in immature rats. However, Gent pretreatment significantly reduced the neuronal damage and spatial memory dysfunction induced by LICL-PILO. Additionally, Gent suppressed the production of inflammatory cytokines and inhibited the expression of P2X7R, NLRP3, ASC, and Caspase-1 in LPS/ATP-induced HAPI microglial cells. DISCUSSION: Gent intervention could improve epileptogenesis in immature rats partially due to suppressing P2X7R and NLRP3 inflammasome.

Lithium chloride promotes neural functional recovery after local cerebral ischaemia injury in rats through Wnt signalling pathway activation.

BACKGROUND: Lithium chloride (LiCl) has a significant neuroprotective effect in cerebral ischaemia. However, to date, there is a paucity of evidence on the role of LiCl in neural restoration after brain ischaemia and the signalling pathways involved remain unclear. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Therefore, to address this gap, the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rat model was used to simulate human ischaemia stroke. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were given MCAO for 90 min followed by reperfusion, and Dickkopf-1 (DKK1, 5.0 µg/kg) was administered half an hour before MCAO. Rats were then treated with hypodermic injection of LiCl (2.0 mmol/kg) twice a day for 1 week. After treatment, cognitive impairment was assessed by the Morris water maze test. Neurological deficit score, 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride staining, brain water content, and histopathology were used to evaluate brain damage. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to measure oxidative stress damage and inflammatory cytokines. Apoptosis of the hippocampal neurons was tested by western blot. The key factors of Wnt signalling pathway in the ischaemic penumbra were detected by immunofluorescence staining and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: Current experimental results showed that LiCl treatment significantly improved the impaired spatial learning and memory ability, suppressed oxidative stress, inflammatory reaction, and neuron apoptosis accompanied by attenuating neuronal damage, which subsequently decreased the brain oedema, infarct volume and neurological deficit. Furthermore, the treatment of LiCl activated Wnt signalling pathway. Interestingly, the aforementioned effects of LiCl treatment were markedly reversed by administration of DKK1, an inhibitor of Wnt signalling pathway. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that LiCl exhibits neuroprotective effects in focal cerebral ischaemia by Wnt signalling pathway activation, and it might have latent clinical application for the prevention and treatment of ischaemic stroke.

Analysis on in vitro effect of lithium on telomere length in lymphoblastoid cell lines from bipolar disorder patients with different clinical response to long-term lithium treatment.

BACKGROUND: It has been suggested that bipolar disorder (BD) is associated with clinical and biological features of accelerated aging. In our previous studies, we showed that long-term lithium treatment was correlated with longer leukocyte telomere length (LTL) in BD patients. A recent study explored the role of TL in BD using patients-derived lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs), showing that baseline TL was shorter in BD compared to controls and that lithium in vitro increased TL but only in BD. Here, we used the same cell system (LCLs) to explore if a 7-day treatment protocol with lithium chloride (LiCl) 1 mM was able to highlight differences in TL between BD patients clinically responders (Li-R; n = 15) or non-responders (Li-NR; n = 15) to lithium, and if BD differed from non-psychiatric controls (HC; n = 15). RESULTS: There was no difference in TL between BD patients and HC. Moreover, LiCl did not influence TL in the overall sample, and there was no difference between diagnostic or clinical response groups. Likewise, LiCl did not affect TL in neural precursor cells from healthy donors. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that a 7-day lithium treatment protocol and the use of LCLs might not represent a suitable approach to deepen our understanding on the role of altered telomere dynamics in BD as previously suggested by studies in vivo.

Effects of co-administration of vitamin E and lithium chloride on chronic constriction injury-induced neuropathy in male Wistar rats: Focus on antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms.

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the antinociceptive effects of co-administration of lithium chloride (LiCl) and vitamin E (Vit E) on chronic constriction injury (CCI)-induced peripheral neuropathy in male Wistar rats. It further explored the anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties of LiCl and Vit E, which may be complementary to the antinociceptive effects of the two substances. METHODS: Thirty-six male Wistar rats, 190.00 ± 10.00 g of body weight were randomly assigned to 6 experimental groups and administered with normal saline, Vit E, LiCl, or their combination, once daily for 21 days. CCI was used to induce neuropathic pain (NP) and mechanical allodynia was assessed using von Frey filaments and pinprick test. Open field maze (OFM) was used to assess the exploratory behavior. Biochemical parameters were assessed in the dorsal root ganglion after 21 days of treatment. RESULTS: Mechanical allodynia was developed in rats following CCI. Co-administration of LiCl and Vit E synergistically reduced mechanical hyperalgesia in rats which were significantly different compared with the single administration of either Vit E or LiCl. Combined doses of Vit E and LiCl significantly increases the explorative behavior in the OFM. CCI increased malondialdehyde (MDA), tumor necrotic factor-alpha (TNF-α), calcitonin gene-related polypeptide, calcium ion (Ca2+ ), and reduced superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities. Co-administration of LiCl and Vit E significantly reduced MDA, TNF-α, but increased SOD compared with ligated control. DISCUSSION: The findings revealed that the synergistic effects of the co-administration of Vit E and LiCl in ameliorating NP are mediated by their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.

Lithium alleviates blood-brain barrier breakdown after cerebral ischemia and reperfusion by upregulating endothelial Wnt/ß-catenin signaling in mice.

Although upregulation of endothelial Wnt/ß-catenin signaling may be used to treat blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown caused by cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury, no agents based on this mechanism are available clinically. Lithium, a medication used for treating bipolar mood disorders, upregulates Wnt/ß-catenin signaling, but whether lithium alleviates BBB breakdown after ischemic stroke by upregulating endothelial Wnt/ß-catenin signaling is unclear. Here, we evaluated the BBB-protective effect of lithium in adult mice with 1-h middle cerebral artery occlusion and 48-h reperfusion (MCAO/R) by determining neurological outcomes, BBB function and related molecular components. Furthermore, we assessed the effect and dependence of lithium on Wnt/ß-catenin signaling in brain microvascular endothelial cells in cell culture and in mice with conditional endothelial knockout of Wnt7 co-receptor Gpr124. Our data show that lithium treatment (3 mmol/kg) significantly decreased infarct volume (34.1 ± 1.8% versus 58.3 ± 2.8% in vehicle controls, P < 0.0001) and improved neurological outcomes of mice following MCAO/R. Importantly, lithium significantly increased BBB integrity shown by reduction of Evans blue leakage (by 45.7%, P = 0.0064) and blood IgG extravasation (by 65.8%, P < 0.0001) into infarcted brain tissue. Mechanistically, lithium upregulated the activity of endothelial Wnt/ß-catenin signaling in vivo and in vitro, increased the protein levels of tight junctions (Claudin-5 and ZO-1), and reduced MMP-9 expression. Furthermore, the protective effect of lithium on cerebral damage and BBB integrity was abolished in endothelial Gpr124 knockout mice, indicating the protection of lithium on BBB was mainly dependent on the Gpr124-mediated endothelial Wnt/ß-catenin signaling. Taken together, our findings indicate that lithium may serve as a therapeutic candidate for treating the BBB breakdown in the early stage of ischemic stroke following reperfusion therapy.

Lithium Chloride Sensitivity in Yeast and Regulation of Translation.

For decades, lithium chloride (LiCl) has been used as a treatment option for those living with bipolar disorder (BD). As a result, many studies have been conducted to examine its mode of action, toxicity, and downstream cellular responses. We know that LiCl is able to affect cell signaling and signaling transduction pathways through protein kinase C and glycogen synthase kinase-3, which are considered to be important in regulating gene expression at the translational level. However, additional downstream effects require further investigation, especially in translation pathway. In yeast, LiCl treatment affects the expression, and thus the activity, of PGM2, a phosphoglucomutase involved in sugar metabolism. Inhibition of PGM2 leads to the accumulation of intermediate metabolites of galactose metabolism causing cell toxicity. However, it is not fully understood how LiCl affects gene expression in this matter. In this study, we identified three genes, NAM7, PUS2, and RPL27B, which increase yeast LiCl sensitivity when deleted. We further demonstrate that NAM7, PUS2, and RPL27B influence translation and exert their activity through the 5'-Untranslated region (5'-UTR) of PGM2 mRNA in yeast.

Lithium alters expression of RNAs in a type-specific manner in differentiated human neuroblastoma neuronal cultures, including specific genes involved in Alzheimer's disease.

Lithium (Li) is a medication long-used to treat bipolar disorder. It is currently under investigation for multiple nervous system disorders, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). While perturbation of RNA levels by Li has been previously reported, its effects on the whole transcriptome has been given little attention. We, therefore, sought to determine comprehensive effects of Li treatment on RNA levels. We cultured and differentiated human neuroblastoma (SK-N-SH) cells to neuronal cells with all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA). We exposed cultures for one week to lithium chloride or distilled water, extracted total RNA, depleted ribosomal RNA and performed whole-transcriptome RT-sequencing. We analyzed results by RNA length and type. We further analyzed expression and protein interaction networks between selected Li-altered protein-coding RNAs and common AD-associated gene products. Lithium changed expression of RNAs in both non-specific (inverse to sequence length) and specific (according to RNA type) fashions. The non-coding small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) were subject to the greatest length-adjusted Li influence. When RNA length effects were taken into account, microRNAs as a group were significantly less likely to have had levels altered by Li treatment. Notably, several Li-influenced protein-coding RNAs were co-expressed or produced proteins that interacted with several common AD-associated genes and proteins. Lithium's modification of RNA levels depends on both RNA length and type. Li activity on snoRNA levels may pertain to bipolar disorders while Li modification of protein coding RNAs may be relevant to AD.

The Possible Interactions and Therapeutic Roles of Lithium Chloride and Midkine on Cancer Treatment.

Midkine (MK) is a heparin-binding anti-apoptotic growth factor or cytokine also known as neurite growth-promoting factor 2 (NEGF2). It is developmentally an important retinoic acid-responsive gene product strongly induced during the mid-gestation stage. Midkine promotes different cellular events such as cell growth, differentiation, survival, gene expression, and drug resistence. Midkine, the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases (PI3-kinase, PI3K) and glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3ß) inhibitors together with lithium chloride may be a very effective treatment modality, especially in tumors with high expression of these two molecules. PI3 kinase and GSK-3ß, both serine threonine kinases located in the center of the signaling network, are very important regulator molecules for cell survival or death. Lithium chloride (LiCl), with its newly discovered antineoplastic effect and cytotoxicity potentiation, has become a promising agent in the application of new combination treatments. Although the LiCl mechanism of action is still not fully understood, previous studies have shown that LiCl is an inhibitör of the inositol monophosphatase (IMPase) and GSK-3ß. GSK-3ß, is a serine-threonine protein kinase involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, survival, apotosis, and tumorogenesis. The role of GSK-3ß in tumorigenesis and cancer remains controversial. It may have a function as a tumor suppressor for certain types of tumors, but it promotes cell growth and development in other tumor types.

Regulation of Diabetes: a Therapeutic Strategy for Alzheimer's Disease?

Accumulated evidence suggests that sporadic cases of Alzheimer's disease (AD) make up more than 95% of total AD patients, and diabetes has been implicated as a strong risk factor for the development of AD. Diabetes shares pathological features of AD, such as impaired insulin signaling, increased oxidative stress, increased amyloid-beta (Aß) production, tauopathy and cerebrovascular complication. Due to shared pathologies between the two diseases, anti-diabetic drugs may be a suitable therapeutic option for AD treatment. In this article, we will discuss the well-known pathologies of AD, including Aß plaques and tau tangles, as well as other mechanisms shared in AD and diabetes including reactive glia and the breakdown of blood brain barrier in order to evaluate the presence of any potential, indirect or direct links of pre-diabetic conditions to AD pathology. In addition, clinical evidence of high incidence of diabetic patients to the development of AD are described together with application of anti-diabetic medications to AD patients.

Nitric oxide and glutamate are contributors of anti-seizure activity of rubidium chloride: A comparison with lithium.

The neuro-protective effects of rubidium and lithium as alkali metals have been reported for different central nervous system dysfunctions including mania and depression. The aim of this study was evaluating as well as comparing the effects of rubidium chloride (RbCl) and lithium chloride (LiCl) on different seizures paradigms in mice and determining the involvement of NMDA receptors and nitrergic pathway. To assess the seizures threshold, animals received intravenous pentylenetetrazole (PTZ, 0.5%; 1 mL/min). Male NMRI mice (6-8 weeks) received intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of different doses of RbCl and LiCl. Doses greater than 10 mg/kg of RbCl showed a significant anticonvulsant activity 60 min after administration; the anticonvulsant effects of LiCl was observed at the doses more than 5 mg/kg and after 30 min in PTZ-induced seizure threshold. But, RbCl (10, 20 mg/kg, i.p) or LiCl (5, 10 mg/kg, i.p) injection did not induce protection against maximal electroshock (MES) or intraperitoneal injection of PTZ lethal dose (80 mg/kg)-induced seizure models. Pre-treatment with L-NAME (non-selective nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor, 10 mg/kg; i.p.) and 7-nitroindazole (selective neuronal NOS inhibitor, 30 mg/kg; i.p.) enhanced the anticonvulsive effects of both RbCl (5 mg/kg, i.p.) and LiCl (1 mg/kg, i.p.) in PTZ-induced seizure threshold model. Injection of MK-801 (NMDA receptor antagonist, 0.05 mg/kg; i.p.) before RbCl (5 mg/kg, i.p.; P < 0.001) and LiCl (1 mg/kg, i.p.; P < 0.001) administration increased the anti-seizure activity. But, treatment with L-arginine (precursor of nitric oxide, 100 mg/kg; i.p.) decreased the seizure threshold of both RbCl (20 mg/kg, i.p.; P < 0.001) and LiCl (10 mg/kg, i.p.; P < 0.001). Measurement of nitrite levels in hippocampus of animals revealed a remarkable reduction after treatment with RbCl (20 mg/kg, i.p; P < 0.05) and LiCl (10 mg/kg, i.p; P < 0.01). To conclude, rubidium may protect central nervous system against seizures in PTZ-induced seizures threshold model through NMDA/nitrergic pathways with a similarity to lithium effects in mice.

Lithium as a Treatment for Alzheimer's Disease: The Systems Pharmacology Perspective.

Systems pharmacology is a novel framework for drug research that models traditional and innovative pharmacological parameters and provides the overall efficacy and safety profile of a drug across body systems and complex, non-linear, molecular interactions. Lithium chloride, a pharmacological compound approved for the therapy of psychiatric disorders, represents a poorly explored compound for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Lithium has been shown to reduce downstream effects associated with the aberrant overactivation of certain molecular pathways, such as glycogen synthase kinase 3 subunit ß (GSK3-ß)-related pathways, involved in AD-related pathophysiology. It seems that overactivation and overexpression of GSK3-ß lead to an impairment of long-term potentiation and amyloid-ß induced neurotoxicity that can be normalized using lithium. Moreover, a growing body of evidence has demonstrated that lithium's GSK3-ß inhibitory effect prevents tau phosphorylation in mouse models of tauopathies. Clinical data have been inconclusive, partly due to methodological limitations. The lack of studies exploring the dynamics of protein misfolding in AD and investigating the specific tau-isoforms appearing prior to the accumulation of neurofibrillary tangles calls for new and optimized clinical trials. Advanced computer modeling based on a formal implementation of quantitative parameters and basic enzymatic insights into a mechanism-based model would present a good start to tackle these non-linear interactions. This innovative approach will pave the way for developing "molecularly" biomarker-guided targeted therapies, i.e., treatments specifically adapted ("tailored") to the individual, consistently with the primary objectives and key conceptual points of precision medicine and precision pharmacology.

GSK3ß regulates epithelial-mesenchymal transition and cancer stem cell properties in triple-negative breast cancer.

BACKGROUND: Triple-negative breast cancers (TNBCs), which lack receptors for estrogen, progesterone, and amplification of epidermal growth factor receptor 2, are highly aggressive. Consequently, patients diagnosed with TNBCs have reduced overall and disease-free survival rates compared to patients with other subtypes of breast cancer. TNBCs are characterized by the presence of cancer cells with mesenchymal properties, indicating that the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) plays a major role in the progression of this disease. The EMT program has also been implicated in chemoresistance, tumor recurrence, and induction of cancer stem cell (CSC) properties. Currently, there are no targeted therapies for TNBC, and hence, it is critical to identify the novel targets to treat TNBC. METHODS: A library of compounds was screened for their ability to inhibit EMT in cells with mesenchymal phenotype as assessed using the previously described Z-cad reporters. Of the several drugs tested, GSK3ß inhibitors were identified as EMT inhibitors. The effects of GSK3ß inhibitors on the properties of TNBC cells with a mesenchymal phenotype were assessed using qRT-PCR, flow cytometry, western blot, mammosphere, and migration and cell viability assays. Publicly available datasets also were analyzed to examine if the expression of GSK3ß correlates with the overall survival of breast cancer patients. RESULTS: We identified a GSK3ß inhibitor, BIO, in a drug screen as one of the most potent inhibitors of EMT. BIO and two other GSK3ß inhibitors, TWS119 and LiCl, also decreased the expression of mesenchymal markers in several different cell lines with a mesenchymal phenotype. Further, inhibition of GSK3ß reduced EMT-related migratory properties of cells with mesenchymal properties. To determine if GSK3ß inhibitors target mesenchymal-like cells by affecting the CSC population, we employed mammosphere assays and profiled the stem cell-related cell surface marker CD44+/24- in cells after exposure to GSK3ß inhibitors. We found that GSK3ß inhibitors indeed decreased the CSC properties of cell types with mesenchymal properties. We treated cells with epithelial and mesenchymal properties with GSK3ß inhibitors and found that GSK3ß inhibitors selectively kill cells with mesenchymal attributes while sparing cells with epithelial properties. We analyzed patient data to identify genes predictive of poor clinical outcome that could serve as novel therapeutic targets for TNBC. The Wnt signaling pathway is critical to EMT, but among the various factors known to be involved in Wnt signaling, only the higher expression of GSK3ß correlated with poorer overall patient survival. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, our data demonstrate that GSK3ß is a potential target for TNBCs and suggest that GSK3ß inhibitors could serve as selective inhibitors of EMT and CSC properties for the treatment of a subset of aggressive TNBC. GSK3ß inhibitors should be tested for use in combination with standard-of-care drugs in preclinical TNBC models.

Early endocannabinoid system activation attenuates behavioral impairments induced by initial impact but does not prevent epileptogenesis in lithium-pilocarpine status epilepticus model.

Mood and anxiety disorders, as well as memory impairments, are important factors affecting quality of life in patients with epilepsy and can influence the antiepileptic therapy. Clinical studies of psychiatric comorbidities are quite complicated to design and interpret, so animal studies of behavioral impairments associated with seizures can be of use. We investigated the effect of early administration of endocannabinoid receptor agonist WIN-55,212-2 on the development of spontaneous seizures, long-term behavioral and memory impairments, and neurodegeneration in the hippocampus on the lithium-pilocarpine model of status epilepticus (SE). We also studied the role of spontaneous seizures in the development of pathologic consequences of the SE. Our results showed that behavioral impairments found in the elevated plus maze test depended mostly on the consequences of SE itself and not on the development of spontaneous seizures while hyperactivity in the open-field test and light-dark chamber was more prominent in rats with spontaneous seizures. Administration of WIN-55,212-2 decreased emotional behavior in the elevated plus maze but did not affect hyperactive behavior in the open-field test. Spatial memory impairment developed both in the presence or absence of spontaneous seizures and was not affected by administration of WIN-55,212-2. Both administration of endocannabinoid receptor agonist WIN-55,212-2 and the presence of spontaneous seizures affected SE-induced neuronal loss in the hippocampus.

Off-target based drug repurposing opportunities for tivantinib in acute myeloid leukemia.

GSK3α has been identified as a new target in the treatment of acute myeloid leukemia (AML). However, most GSK3 inhibitors lack specificity for GSK3α over GSK3ß and other kinases. We have previously shown in lung cancer cells that GSK3α and to a lesser extent GSK3ß are inhibited by the advanced clinical candidate tivantinib (ARQ197), which was designed as a MET inhibitor. Thus, we hypothesized that tivantinib would be an effective therapy for the treatment of AML. Here, we show that tivantinib has potent anticancer activity across several AML cell lines and primary patient cells. Tivantinib strongly induced apoptosis, differentiation and G2/M cell cycle arrest and caused less undesirable stabilization of ß-catenin compared to the pan-GSK3 inhibitor LiCl. Subsequent drug combination studies identified the BCL-2 inhibitor ABT-199 to synergize with tivantinib while cytarabine combination with tivantinib was antagonistic. Interestingly, the addition of ABT-199 to tivantinib completely abrogated tivantinib induced ß-catenin stabilization. Tivantinib alone, or in combination with ABT-199, downregulated anti-apoptotic MCL-1 and BCL-XL levels, which likely contribute to the observed synergy. Importantly, tivantinib as single agent or in combination with ABT-199 significantly inhibited the colony forming capacity of primary patient AML bone marrow mononuclear cells. In summary, tivantinib is a novel GSK3α/ß inhibitor that potently kills AML cells and tivantinib single agent or combination therapy with ABT-199 may represent attractive new therapeutic opportunities for AML.

Long-term impact of chronic variable stress in adolescence versus adulthood.

Adolescence is a period of active development of stress regulatory neurocircuitry. As a consequence, mechanisms that control the responses to stress are not fully matured during this developmental period, which may result in vulnerability to chronic stress. We hypothesized that adolescent chronic stress would have negative consequences on stress adaptation later in life. Male Wistar rats (PND40) were subjected to chronic variable stress (CVS) for 2 weeks, with 2 daily stressors randomly presented and overnight social stressors twice a week. After five weeks, animals were evaluated during adulthood, using the elevated plus maze (EPM) and the forced swim test (FST). The hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis response to a 30-min restraint was also assessed. Results are compared to those of adult rats tested 5 weeks following CVS cessation. Our results demonstrate that the long-term effects of CVS are specific to the age of application of the stress regime. We show how behavior and HPA axis response as well as hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus activation can differ with age, resulting in differential behavioral adaptations for animals stressed in adolescence and dysregulation of the HPA axis in the animals stressed in adulthood, These data underscore the importance of the adolescent period in determining resilience of the HPA axis and programming behavioral responses later in life.

Administration of Momordica charantia Enhances the Neuroprotection and Reduces the Side Effects of LiCl in the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease.

Recently, the use of natural food supplements to reduce the side effects of chemical compounds used for the treatment of various diseases has become popular. Lithium chloride (LiCl) has some protective effects in neurological diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, its toxic effects on various systems and some relevant interactions with other drugs limit its broader use in clinical practice. In this study, we investigated the in vitro and in vivo pharmacological functions of LiCl combined with Momordica charantia (MC) in the treatment of AD. The in vitro results show that the order of the neuroprotective effect is MC5, MC3, MC2, and MC5523 under hyperglycemia or tau hyperphosphorylation. Therefore, MC5523 (80 mg/kg; oral gavage) and/or LiCl (141.3 mg/kg; intraperitoneal injection) were applied to ovariectomized (OVX) 3×Tg-AD female and C57BL/6J (B6) male mice that received intracerebroventricular injections of streptozotocin (icv-STZ, 3 mg/kg) for 28 days. We found that the combined treatment not only increased the survival rate by reducing hepatotoxicity but also increased neuroprotection associated with anti-gliosis in the icv-STZ OVX 3×Tg-AD mice. Furthermore, the cotreatment with MC5523 and LiCl prevented memory deficits associated with reduced neuronal loss, gliosis, oligomeric Aß level, and tau hyperphosphorylation and increased the expression levels of synaptic-related protein and pS9-GSK3ß (inactive form) in the icv-STZ B6 mice. Therefore, MC5523 combined with LiCl could be a potential strategy for the treatment of AD.

GSK-3 inhibitors enhance TRAIL-mediated apoptosis in human gastric adenocarcinoma cells.

Resistance to tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)-induced apoptosis has been reported in some cancer cells, including AGS human gastric adenocarcinoma cells. Reducing this resistance might shed light on the treatment of human gastric adenocarcinoma. In this study, we examined whether glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) inhibitors can restore TRAIL responsiveness in gastric adenocarcinoma cells. The effect of two GSK-3 inhibitors, SB-415286, and LiCl, on apoptosis signaling of TRAIL in human gastric adenocarcinoma cell lines and primary gastric epithelial cells was analyzed. Both inhibitors can sensitize gastric adenocarcinoma cells, but not primary gastric epithelial cells, to TRAIL-induced apoptosis by increasing caspase-8 activity and its downstream signal transmission. Adding p53 siRNA can downregulate GSK-3 inhibitor-related sensitization to TRAIL-induced apoptosis and caspase-3 activity. GSK-3 inhibitors strongly activate the phosphorylation of JNK. Inhibition of JNK leads to earlier and more intense apoptosis, showing that the activation of JNK may provide anti-apoptotic equilibrium of pro-apoptotic cells. Our observations indicate that GSK-3 inhibitors can sentize AGS gastric adenocarcinoma cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis. Therefore, in certain types of gastric adenocarcinoma, GSK-3 inhibitor might enhance the antitumor activity of TRAIL and mightbe a promising candidate for the treatment of certain types of gastric adenocarcinoma.

The neuroprotective effect of lithium chloride on cognitive impairment through glycogen synthase kinase-3ß inhibition in intracerebral hemorrhage rats.

To the clinical cognitive impairment following intracerebral hemorrhage, comprehensive neuropsychological assessments and efficacious interventions have rarely been conducted. Lithium chloride, a classical treatment for bipolar disorder, has shown neuroprotective effects through glycogen synthase kinase-3ß inhibition in a variety of central nervous system diseases, including stroke. Since neurons that contain glutamate play crucial roles in psychological functions, such as learning and memory, the glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity and consequent neuronal death and cognitive impairment in hippocampus may co-determine the clinical course of intracerebral hemorrhage. However, the potential molecular mechanisms have rarely been demonstrated in intracerebral hemorrhage researches. In this study, Male Sprague-Dawley rats, subjected to intrastriatal blood infusion, were treated with lithium chloride and underwent neurobehavioral test for equivalent injury severity and neurological functional deficits, Morris water maze test for cognitive impairment, high performance liquid chromatography analysis for excitotoxic index determination, immunohistochemistry analysis for neuronal apoptosis, and Western blot analysis for glycogen synthase kinase-3ß activity. Our results showed lithium chloride inhibited glycogen synthase kinase-3ß activation, which on one hand, suppressed downstream CRMP-2/NR2B, thus diminishing the excitotoxic index level; and on the other, stabilized ß-catenin, thus modulating its downstream apoptosis-related factors such as NF-κB, Bcl-2 and Bax. Meanwhile, glycogen synthase kinase-3ß inactivation was paralleled by decreased neuronal death, improved neurological functional deficits and ameliorated cognitive deficits in intracerebral hemorrhage animals. These findings indicate that lithium chloride improves glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity-induced cognitive deficits after intracerebral hemorrhage and that lithium chloride might be a potential therapeutic agent for brain damages caused by intracerebral hemorrhage.