Spatial patterns of the leaf crown borer Eupalamides cyparissias (Cramer, 1775) (Lepidoptera: Castiniidae) in coconut (Cocos nucifera L) tropical region / Padrões espaciais da broca da coroa da folha Eupalamides cyparissias (Cramer, 1775) (Lepidoptera: Castiniidae) em coco (Cocos nucifera L) região tropical

The leaf crown borer Eupalamides cyparissias (Cramer, 1775) is an important pest of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) and other palms (Arecaceae) of economic importance, attacking the base of leaves, inflorescences, and infructescences, increasing fruit abortion. The objective of this study was to evaluate the spatial correlation of the infestation rate of E. cyparissias in coconut plantation blocks in the Brazilian Amazon, from January to December 2019, in the city of Santa Izabel, Pará, Brazil. The study area is a farm subdivided into 157 blocks of a commercial plantation of the green dwarf coconut. The Local Moran's Index was used to evaluate the existence of spatial autocorrelation of the E. cyparissias infestation rate in the 157 blocks with neighboring blocks. The infestation rate was calculated by the ratio between the number of plants attacked by the borer and the total number of plants in a block. There is a significant correlation of the symptomatology of the attack by E. cyparissias in the blocks of the experimental area, which indicates an aggregated pattern of distribution. There is no significant correlation between the attack by the borer and the age of the coconut tree; however there is a significant correlation between the attack by the borer and proximity to forest areas. These results indicate that forest regions are foci of infestation by the borer in coconut plantations.

A broca-da-coroa-foliar Eupalamides cyparissias (Cramer, 1775) é um importante praga para as culturas do coqueiro (Cocos nucifera Linnaeus) e outras palmeiras (Areacaceae) de importância econômica, atacando a base de folhas, inflorescências e infrutescências acarretando o aumento do abortamento de frutos. O objetivo deste estudo é avaliar a distribuição espacial da taxa de plantas com sintomas de ataque por E. cyparissias das quadras de plantio de coqueiro na Amazônia brasileira, de janeiro a dezembro de 2019, no município de Santa Izabel, Pará, Brasil. A área de estudo é uma fazenda subdividida em 157 quadras de plantio comercial de coqueiro anão verde (C. nucifera). O Índice de Moran Local foi utilizado para avaliar a existência de autocorrelação espacial da variável sintomatologia do ataque de E. cyparissias das 157 quadras com as quadras vizinhas. Há correlação significativa da sintomatologia do ataque por E. cyparissias nas quadras da área experimental, o que indica um padrão de distribuição agregado. Não há correlação significativa entre o ataque pela broca e idade do coqueiro, no entanto há correlação significativa entre o ataque pela broca e proximidade a áreas de mata. Esses resultados indicam que regiões de floresta são focos de infestação pela broca em plantios de coqueiro.

A new species of planthopper in the genus Haplaxius/ (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha: Fulgoroidea: Cixiidae) from coconut palm (Cocos/ nucifera/) in Costa Rica.

Haplaxius is a large genus of cixiid planthoppers that is widespread in the New World and economically important due to the role of H. crudus in transmitting palm lethal decline phytoplasmas. A new species of Haplaxius, here described as Haplaxius pocococo sp. n., was discovered during survey work on palms in north-central Costa Rica. Placement in Haplaxius is supported by sequence analysis of the COI and 18S genes relative to congeners and by morphological characters.

Field distribution patterns of pests are asymmetrically affected by the presence of other herbivores.

Because plant phenotypes can change in response to attacks by herbivores in highly variable ways, the distribution of herbivores depends on the occurrence of other herbivore species on the same plant. We carried out a field study to evaluate the co-occurrence of three coconut pests, the mites Aceria guerreronis (Acari: Eriophyidae), Steneotarsonemus concavuscutum (Acari: Tarsonemidae) and the moth Atheloca bondari (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). The eriophyid mite Ac. guerreronis is the most important coconut pest around the world, whereas S. concavuscutum and At. bondari are economically important only in some areas along the Brazilian coast. A previous study suggested that the necrosis caused by Ac. guerreronis facilitates the infestation of At. bondari larvae. Because all three species infest the area under the perianths on coconuts and S. concavuscutum also causes necrosis that could facilitate At. bondari, we evaluated the co-occurrence of all three species. We found that the occurrence of At. bondari was positively associated with Ac. guerreronis, but negatively associated with S. concavuscutum. In addition, the two mite species showed negative co-occurrence. Atheloca bondari was found on nuts of all ages, but more on nuts that had fallen than on those on the trees, suggesting that nuts infested by At. bondari tend to fall more frequently. We discuss the status of At. bondari as a pest and discuss experiments to test the causes of these co-occurrence patterns.

Potential of native palm species in Northeast Brazil as hosts for the invasive mite Raoiella indica (Acari: Tenuipalpidae).

The red palm mite, Raoiella indica Hirst (Tenuipalpidae), has mainly been registered on palm species (Arecaceae), and its expansion in Brazil has the potential to cause significant negative impact on cultivated as well as native palms. Here, we evaluate the potential of native palms from Northeast Brazil to act as hosts of R. indica. Specifically, we used in situ free-choice and confinement tests, in which sections of palm leaves/leaflets of various species were experimentally infested with R. indica. We tested the following species: Acrocomia aculeata, Acrocomia intumescens, Allagoptera caudescens, Attalea funifera, Attalea oleifera, Bactris acanthocarpa var. acanthocarpa, Bactris ferruginea, Bactris glassmanii, Bactris hirta var. spruceana, Bactris pickelii, Copernicia prunifera, Desmoncus orthacanthos, Desmoncus polyacanthos, Syagrus coronata and Syagrus schizophylla. All of these were compared with the mite's preferred host, the coconut palm, Cocos nucifera. In the free-choice test, both male and female R. indica preferred C. nucifera in comparison to each of the native palms. In the confinement test, we observed significant differences in the survivorship between mites on native palms and those on coconut palms after the second day of infestation. By the fifth day, survivorship of mites on the native palms was almost always significantly lower than on C. nucifera (excepting for C. prunifera). We conclude that, among all the native palms evaluated, only the carnauba palm (C. prunifera) is at risk from R. indica. This result is relevant as this palm is an economically important species in the region.

Persistence of the red ring nematode in the roots and in the rhizosphere of recently eradicated coconut palms / Persistência do nematoide do anel vermelho nas raízes e na rizosfera de coqueiros recém-erradicados

Red ring disease is one of the primary diseases that attacks the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.) inBrazil. This lethal disease is caused by a nematode (Bursaphelenchus cocophilus) and can spread viacontaminated tools or by the South American palm weevil (Rhynchophorus palmarum). The goal of thisresearch was to determine the persistence of nematodes within the roots and the rhizosphere of recentlyeradicated coconut palms, cultivated in the coastal region of the state of Alagoas. Soil and root samplesfrom coconut palms with advanced symptoms of red ring disease were collected up to 6 months afterthe eradication of the plants. Sample processing was conducted at the Ecology and Insect BehaviorLaboratory of the Federal University of Alagoas. Sample collection was ended when B. cocophilus wereno longer found in the laboratory tests. B. cocophilus were able to survive in the coconut palm roots forat least 118 and 133 days after felling (DAF), in Coruripe and São Miguel dos Milagres, respectively.B. cocophilus could migrated from the roots to the soil, where they were found until 76 and 88 DAF, inCoruripe and São Miguel dos Milagres, respectively.

Dentre as principais moléstias que atacam o coqueiro encontra-se o anel vermelho, doença letal causadapelo nematoide Bursaphelenchus cocophilus, o qual pode ser disseminada por ferramentas contaminadasou através da broca-do-olho-do-coqueiro, Rhynchophorus palmarum. Neste contexto, o presente trabalhode pesquisa teve como objetivo determinar a persistência de nematoides associados à rizosfera decoqueiros recém-erradicados, cultivados na região da Baixada Litorânea do Estado de Alagoas. Foramcoletadas amostras de solo e de raízes de coqueiros com sintomas avançados da doença do anel vermelhoaté seis meses após a erradicação das plantas. O processamento das amostras foi realizado no Laboratóriode Ecologia e Comportamento dos Insetos da Universidade Federal de Alagoas. A coleta de amostras sófoi suspensa a partir do momento em que não foram mais encontrados indivíduos (B. cocophilus) nasavaliações em laboratório. B. cocophilus foi capaz de sobreviver nas raízes dos coqueiros por pelo menos118 e 133 dias após o corte (DAC), em Coruripe e São Miguel dos Milagres, respectivamente. Pode terocorrido a migração do B. cocophilus das raízes para o solo, visto que ele foi encontrado até 76 e 88 DACno solo coletado em Coruripe e de São Miguel dos Milagres, respectivamente.

Persistence of the red ring nematode in the roots and in the rhizosphere of recently eradicated coconut palms / Persistência do nematoide do anel vermelho nas raízes e na rizosfera de coqueiros recém-erradicados

Red ring disease is one of the primary diseases that attacks the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.) inBrazil. This lethal disease is caused by a nematode (Bursaphelenchus cocophilus) and can spread viacontaminated tools or by the South American palm weevil (Rhynchophorus palmarum). The goal of thisresearch was to determine the persistence of nematodes within the roots and the rhizosphere of recentlyeradicated coconut palms, cultivated in the coastal region of the state of Alagoas. Soil and root samplesfrom coconut palms with advanced symptoms of red ring disease were collected up to 6 months afterthe eradication of the plants. Sample processing was conducted at the Ecology and Insect BehaviorLaboratory of the Federal University of Alagoas. Sample collection was ended when B. cocophilus wereno longer found in the laboratory tests. B. cocophilus were able to survive in the coconut palm roots forat least 118 and 133 days after felling (DAF), in Coruripe and São Miguel dos Milagres, respectively.B. cocophilus could migrated from the roots to the soil, where they were found until 76 and 88 DAF, inCoruripe and São Miguel dos Milagres, respectively.(AU)

Dentre as principais moléstias que atacam o coqueiro encontra-se o anel vermelho, doença letal causadapelo nematoide Bursaphelenchus cocophilus, o qual pode ser disseminada por ferramentas contaminadasou através da broca-do-olho-do-coqueiro, Rhynchophorus palmarum. Neste contexto, o presente trabalhode pesquisa teve como objetivo determinar a persistência de nematoides associados à rizosfera decoqueiros recém-erradicados, cultivados na região da Baixada Litorânea do Estado de Alagoas. Foramcoletadas amostras de solo e de raízes de coqueiros com sintomas avançados da doença do anel vermelhoaté seis meses após a erradicação das plantas. O processamento das amostras foi realizado no Laboratóriode Ecologia e Comportamento dos Insetos da Universidade Federal de Alagoas. A coleta de amostras sófoi suspensa a partir do momento em que não foram mais encontrados indivíduos (B. cocophilus) nasavaliações em laboratório. B. cocophilus foi capaz de sobreviver nas raízes dos coqueiros por pelo menos118 e 133 dias após o corte (DAC), em Coruripe e São Miguel dos Milagres, respectivamente. Pode terocorrido a migração do B. cocophilus das raízes para o solo, visto que ele foi encontrado até 76 e 88 DACno solo coletado em Coruripe e de São Miguel dos Milagres, respectivamente.(AU)

Bioinsecticide-predator interactions: azadirachtin behavioral and reproductive impairment of the coconut mite predator Neoseiulus baraki.

Synthetic pesticide use has been the dominant form of pest control since the 1940s. However, biopesticides are emerging as sustainable pest control alternatives, with prevailing use in organic agricultural production systems. Foremost among botanical biopesticides is the limonoid azadirachtin, whose perceived environmental safety has come under debate and scrutiny in recent years. Coconut production, particularly organic coconut production, is one of the agricultural systems in which azadirachtin is used as a primary method of pest control for the management of the invasive coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis Keifer (Acari: Eriophyidae). The management of this mite species also greatly benefits from predation by Neoseiulus baraki (Athias-Henriot) (Acari: Phytoseiidae). Here, we assessed the potential behavioral impacts of azadirachtin on the coconut mite predator, N. baraki. We explored the effects of this biopesticide on overall predator activity, female searching time, and mating behavior and fecundity. Azadirachtin impairs the overall activity of the predator, reducing it to nearly half; however, female searching was not affected. In contrast, mating behavior was compromised by azadirachtin exposure particularly when male predators were exposed to the biopesticide. Consequently, predator fecundity was also compromised by azadirachtin, furthering doubts about its environmental safety and selectivity towards biological control agents.

Spatial and temporal analysis of stem bleeding disease in coconut palm in the state of Sergipe, Brazil.

Stem bleeding disease (resinosis) of coconut palm is caused by Thielaviopsis paradoxa and is very important in the state of Sergipe, Brazil. Understanding the epidemiological behavior of the disease is essential for establishing more efficient control strategies. Thus, we characterized the temporal progression and spatial distribution of stem bleeding in a commercial orchard under conditions of natural infection in the area of Neopolis, Sergipe. Three plots with 729 plants each were selected and evaluated every two months for stem bleeding incidence. In the temporal analysis, the monomolecular model gave the best fit to data on disease incidence, as it accurately showed the temporal dynamics of the disease during the experiment period. The spatial pattern of stem bleeding varied over time, with initial infections presenting random pattern and then evolving to aggregate pattern during evaluations. This indicates that the disease may have originated from the pathogen survival structures, followed by auto infections caused by dissemination from plant to plant, either by humans, by contact between roots, or by the vector Rhynchophorus palmarum.

Spatial distributions of the red palm mite, Raoiella indica (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) on coconut and their implications for development of efficient sampling plans.

The red palm mite (Raoiella indica), an invasive pest of coconut, entered the Western hemisphere in 2004, then rapidly spread through the Caribbean and into Florida, USA. Developing effective sampling methods may aid in the timely detection of the pest in a new area. Studies were conducted to provide and compare intra tree spatial distribution of red palm mite populations on coconut in two different geographical areas, Trinidad and Puerto Rico, recently invaded by the mite. The middle stratum of a palm hosted significantly more mites than fronds from the upper or lower canopy and fronds from the lower stratum, on average, had significantly fewer mites than the two other strata. The mite populations did not vary within a frond. Mite densities on the top section of the pinna had significantly lower mite densities than the two other sections, which were not significantly different from each other. In order to improve future sampling plans for the red palm mite, the data was used to estimate the variance components associated with the various levels of the hierarchical sampling design. Additionally, presence-absence data were used to investigate the probability of no mites being present in a pinna section randomly chosen from a frond inhabited by mites at a certain density. Our results show that the most precise density estimate at the plantation level is to sample one pinna section per tree from as many trees as possible.

Status of Aceria guerreronis Keifer (Acari: Eriophyidae) as a pest of coconut in the state of Sao Paulo, southeastern Brazil.

The coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis Keifer, is one of the main pests of coconut palms (Cocos nucifera) in northeastern Brazil. The objective of this study was to evaluate the levels of the coconut mite and other mites on coconut palms in the state of São Paulo and to estimate the possible role of predatory mites in the control of this pest. The effect of cultivated genotypes and sampling dates on the mite populations was also estimated. We sampled attached fruits, leaflets, inflorescences, and fallen fruits. The coconut mite was the main phytophagous mite found on attached and fallen fruits, with average densities of 110.0 and 20.5 mites per fruit, respectively. The prevalent predatory mites on attached and fallen fruits were Proctolaelaps bulbosus Moraes, Reis & Gondim Jr. and Proctolaelaps bickleyi (Bram), both Melicharidae. On leaflets, the tenuipalpids Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijsks) and Tenuipalpus coyacus De Leon and the tetranychid Oligonychus modestus (Banks) were the predominant phytophagous mites. On both leaflets and inflorescences, the predominant predatory mites belonged to the Phytoseiidae. Neoseiulus baraki (Athias-Henriot) and Neoseiulus paspalivorus (De Leon), predators widely associated with the coconut mite in northeastern Brazil and several other countries, were not found. The low densities of the coconut mite in São Paulo could be related to prevailing climatic conditions, scarcity of coconut plantations (hampering the dispersion of the coconut mite between fields), and to the fact that some of the genotypes cultivated in the region are unfavorable for its development.

Distribution of Aceria guerreronis and Neoseiulus baraki among and within coconut bunches in northeast Brazil.

Aceria guerreronis Keifer (Acari: Eriophyidae) is considered a major pest of coconut in many countries in the Americas, Africa and parts of Asia. Neoseiulus baraki Athias-Henriot (Acari: Phytoseiidae) is one of the predatory mites most commonly found in association with A. guerreronis in parts of northeast Brazil. The objective of this work was to study the distribution of A. guerreronis and N. baraki among and within coconut bunches. The hypothesis was tested that A. guerreronis and N. baraki are homogenously distributed over the fruits in a bunch, independent of the fruits' age and position. Five collections of bunches, each corresponding to leaves 12-16 from apex (about 2-6 month-old), were conducted in each of three fields in northeastern Brazil, from February to October, 2007. A total of 1,986 fruits were examined. The number of mites, the percentage of fruits hosting them and the level of damage caused by A. guerreronis were evaluated. The highest density of A. guerreronis was observed on fruits of bunch 4 whereas the highest density of N. baraki was observed on bunch 5. Considering all fruits together, no significant differences were observed between densities of either A. guerreronis or N. baraki among the basal, median and apical thirds of the bunches. In younger bunches, fruits of the apical region tend to have lower densities of both mites than fruits of the basal region. This pattern, in association with a similar pattern for the percentage of fruits hosting N. baraki, suggests that the predator initially reaches the basal bunch region, from where it moves to the apical region. The results of the present study suggest that the pest population reduction in bunches older than bunch 4 could be due to (1) an effect of the predator, (2) reduction of the proportion of undamaged tissues amenable to attack, and/or (3) less favorable characteristics of the fruits to attack by A. guerreronis, as indicated by their increasing lignin content as they get older.

Olfactory response of predatory mites to vegetative and reproductive parts of coconut palm infested by Aceria guerreronis.

The phytophagous mite Aceria guerreronis Keifer is an important pest of coconut worldwide. A promising method of control for this pest is the use of predatory mites. Neoseiulus baraki (Athias-Henriot) and Proctolaelaps bickleyi Bram are predatory mites found in association with A. guerreronis in the field. To understand how these predators respond to olfactory cues from A. guerreronis and its host plant, the foraging behavior of the predatory mites was investigated in a Y-tube olfactometer and on T-shaped arenas. The predators were subjected to choose in an olfactometer: (1) isolated parts (leaflet, spikelet or fruit) of infested coconut plant or clean air stream; (2) isolated parts of non-infested or infested coconut plant; and (3) two different plant parts previously shown to be attractive. Using T-shaped arenas the predators were offered all possible binary combinations of discs of coconut fruit epidermis infested with A. guerreronis, non-infested discs or coconut pollen. The results showed that both predators were preferred (the volatile cues from) the infested plant parts over clean air. When subjected to odours from different infested or non-infested plant parts, predators preferred the infested parts. Among the infested plant parts, the spikelets induced the greatest attraction to predators. On the arenas, both predators preferred discs of coconut fruits infested with A. guerreronis over every other alternative. The results show that both predators are able to locate A. guerreronis by olfactory stimuli. Foraging strategies and implications for biological control are discussed.

Isolation and characterization of eight polymorphic microsatellite loci for the coconut pest, Brontispa longissima (Coleoptera: Hispidae).

Brontispa longissima is one of the most serious insect pests of coconut in Southeast Asia; it was first discovered on Hainan Island in June 2002. Despite the economic risk associated with this pest, genetic aspects of the invasion process have remained relatively unexplored. Using microsatellite markers, we investigated the population structure, genetic variability and pattern of invasion in various geographic populations. The methodology was based on a modified biotin-capture method. Eight polymorphic microsatellite loci were isolated and characterized for the pest. The allele number per locus varied from 2 to 3 (N = 30). The expected and observed heterozygosities of the eight loci ranged from 0.042 to 0.509 and from 0.042 to 0.963, respectively. Although the frequency of polymorphisms was not very high in this population, the microsatellite loci that were isolated will be useful for investigating the genetic diversity and migration routes of B. longissima populations.

Commercial coconut palm as an ecotope of Chagas disease vectors in north-eastern Venezuela.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVE: There are few reports of Coccus nucifera (Palmae) infestation by triatomines (Hemiptera, Reduviidae, Triatominae), vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae), the causal agent of American Trypanosomiasis. The aim of this study was to determine if this palm is an appropriate ecotope for Rhodnius prolixus and Triatoma maculata, the main vectors in Venezuela. METHODS: Dry and green leaves, humid debris, interfoliaceus meshes and bracts from C. nucifera from north-eastern Venezuela were examined for the presence of triatomines. Samples of the intestinal content of vectors, macerated in isotonic saline solution and haemolymph were examined microscopically for the presence of Trypanosoma spp. The parasites were isolated and characterized using biological parameters and PCR. Triatomine blood meal sources were determined using ELISA. RESULTS: A total of 14 palms were examined in which viable eggs of both species of vectors were found in 13 palms (92.85%). A total of 242 R. prolixus and 144 T. maculata adults were collected, of which 98% of R. prolixus and 70% of T. maculata individuals were infected by T. cruzi (TcI genotype) and 13% of R. prolixus individuals showed a mixed infection with T. rangeli, the other American trypanosome. ELISA testing for possible triatomine blood-meal sources revealed that these vectors are essentially eurytrophic and zoophilic, although R. prolixus also eventually used human blood as a nourishment source. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: The results obtained suggest that C. nucifera is an appropriate vegetal niche for these triatomine species in Venezuela. The presence of this commercial palm may represent a useful environmental bioindicator of risk for Chagas disease.

[Thermal requirements of the coconut pest Atheloca subrufella (Hulst) (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae)]. / Exigências térmicas da praga do coqueiro Atheloca subrufella (Hulst)(Lepidoptera: Phycitidae).

Among the important pests of coconut, the coconut moth Atheloca subrufella (Hulst) is a significant pest of flowers and fruits, and is found across all coconut-producing regions in Brazil. We investigated the thermal requirements of A. subrufella and estimated the number of generations for two different growing coconut regions in Pernambuco State. The developmental time of all immature stages reduced as the temperature increased. The egg to adult period ranged from 19.3 to 59.8 days from 32 degrees C to 18 degrees C, respectively. The survival of the period from egg to adult was 25% at extreme temperatures (18 degrees C and 32 degreesC), while at the intermediate temperatures it was over 72%. Based on the thermal requirements determined for A. subrufella and the average temperatures determined for "Zona da Mata" and "Sertão" of Pernambuco State, it was estimated that A. subrufella is able to complete up to 13 generations per year in both areas. These results indicate that A. subrufella exhibited development and reproduction limited by temperatures higher than 32 degrees C and lower than 18 degrees C. However, based on the thermal requirements of A. subrufella and the mean temperatures of the "Zona da Mata" and "Sertão" of Pernambuco State, this pest can develop throughout the entire year.

Exigências térmicas da praga do coqueiro Atheloca subrufella (Hulst)(Lepidoptera: Phycitidae) / Thermal requirements of the coconut pest Atheloca subrufella (Hulst) (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae)

Among the important pests of coconut, the coconut moth Atheloca subrufella (Hulst) is a significant pest of flowers and fruits, and is found across all coconut-producing regions in Brazil. We investigated the thermal requirements of A. subrufella and estimated the number of generations for two different growing coconut regions in Pernambuco State. The developmental time of all immature stages reduced as the temperature increased. The egg to adult period ranged from 19.3 to 59.8 days from 32ºC to 18ºC, respectively. The survival of the period from egg to adult was 25 percent at extreme temperatures (18ºC and 32ºC), while at the intermediate temperatures it was over 72 percent. Based on the thermal requirements determined for A. subrufella and the average temperatures determined for "Zona da Mata" and "Sertão" of Pernambuco State, it was estimated that A. subrufella is able to complete up to 13 generations per year in both areas. These results indicate that A. subrufella exhibited development and reproduction limited by temperatures higher than 32ºC and lower than 18ºC. However, based on the thermal requirements of A. subrufella and the mean temperatures of the "Zona da Mata" and "Sertão" of Pernambuco State, this pest can develop throughout the entire year.

In vitro cultivation and morphological characterization of phloemic trypanosomatids isolated from coconut trees.

Plant trypanosomatids cause lethal vascular wilting in palms of the Arecaceae family. Infections, affecting plants in South and Central America, can result in significant economic loss. The study of trypanosomatids that cause these diseases has been complicated due to the inability to culture these organisms for in vitro analyses. To develop a protocol that would facilitate studies of trypanosomatids, continuous in vitro cultures of phloemic trypanosomatids were established from apical stems of diseased coconut trees collected in endemic and non-endemic regions of Brazil (the states of Bahia and Rio de Janeiro, respectively). Although attempts at establishing axenic cultures were unsuccessful, it was found that trypanosomatid co-cultures could be successfully established and maintained. The procedure was to preculture media with 10(4)Aedes albopictus cells in Grace's medium supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum (without antibiotics or fungicides) for 3 d before adding 10(6) trypanosomatids/ml harvested from either fresh apical stem extracts or with 2 mm(3) fragments of coconut apical stems. By day 7 under these conditions the parasites grew exponentially. Using this strategy, two isolates were identified and have been maintained in our laboratory for over 400 passages, demonstrating the efficacy of this culturing procedure. In situ the organisms were observed in vascular bundles and inside sieve elements of the phloem of diseased palms. In vitro parasites retained their mobility. Morphometric analysis revealed differences between Bahia and Rio de Janeiro isolates.

Geographic pattern of morphological variation of the coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis Keifer (Acari: Eriophyidae), using multivariate morphometry.

The coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis Keifer, has become one of the most important pests of coconut in the Americas and Africa and recently in Southeast Asia. Despite the great economic importance of this mite, there is a lack of information on its origin and invasion history that are important to guide the search of biological control agents as well as the adoption of quarantine procedures. This study evaluates morphometric variation among A. guerreronis populations throughout its occurrence area, relates this variation with historical sequence of records, looking for information on its biogeography. Samples of 27 populations from the Americas, Africa and Asia were analysed using Principal Component Analysis and Canonical Discriminant Analysis. Results showed significant morphometric variability of A. uerreronis throughout its distribution area, with a high variability among American populations and otherwise a high similarity among African and Asian populations. The geographic pattern of variation of mite populations observed supports the hypothesis that A. guerreronis originated in the Americas and was introduced into Africa and Asia. Some inferences related to taxonomy of Eriophyoidea mites were included.

Bodo sp., a free-living flagellate, expresses divergent proteolytic activities from the closely related parasitic trypanosomatids.

We report the characterization of cell-associated and extracellular peptidases of Bodo sp., a free-living flagellate of the Bodonidae family, order Kinetoplastida, which is considered ancestral to the trypanosomatids. This bodonid isolate is phylogenetically related to Bodo caudatus and Bodo curvifilus. The proteolytic activity profiles of Bodo sp. were determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis containing co-polymerized gelatin, casein, hemoglobin, or bovine serum albumin as substrates. The enzymatic complex degraded gelatin better in acidic pH, and under these conditions four proteolytic bands (120, 100, 90, and 75 kDa) were detected in the cellular or extracellular extracts. Two peptidases (250 and 200 kDa) were exclusively detected with the substrate casein. All these enzymes belong to the serine peptidase class, based on inhibition by aprotinin and phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride. This is the first biochemical characterization of peptidases in a free-living Bodo sp., potentially providing insight into the physiology of these protozoa and the evolutionary importance of peptidases to the order Kinetoplastida as some of these enzymes are important virulence factors in pathogenic trypanosomatids.

Geographic pattern of morphological variation of the coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis Keifer (Acari: Eriophyidae), using multivariate morphometry / Padrão geográfico de variação morfológica do ácaro do coqueiro, Aceria guerreronis Keifer (Acari: Eriophyidae), utilizando morfometria multivariada

The coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis Keifer, has become one of the most important pests of coconut in the Americas and Africa and recently in Southeast Asia. Despite the great economic importance of this mite, there is a lack of information on its origin and invasion history that are important to guide the search of biological control agents as well as the adoption of quarantine procedures. This study evaluates morphometric variation among A. guerreronis populations throughout its occurrence area, relates this variation with historical sequence of records, looking for information on its biogeography. Samples of 27 populations from the Americas, Africa and Asia were analysed using Principal Component Analysis and Canonical Discriminant Analysis. Results showed significant morphometric variability of A. uerreronis throughout its distribution area, with a high variability among American populations and otherwise a high similarity among African and Asian populations. The geographic pattern of variation of mite populations observed supports the hypothesis that A. guerreronis originated in the Americas and was introduced into Africa and Asia. Some inferences related to taxonomy of Eriophyoidea mites were included.

O ácaro do coqueiro, Aceria guerreronis Keifer, se tornou uma das pragas mais importantes do coqueiro nas Américas e África e, recentemente, no sudeste da Ásia. Apesar da importância econômica deste ácaro, faltam informações sobre sua origem e seu histórico de invasão, o que é importante para orientar a busca de agentes de controle biológico assim como a adoção de medidas quarentenárias. Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a variação morfométrica entre populações de A. guerreronis ao longo de sua área de ocorrência, relacionar esta variação com a sequência histórica de registros, buscando informações sobre sua biogeografia. Amostras de 27 populações das Américas, África e Ásia foram analisadas utilizando-se Análise dos Componentes Principais e Análise Discriminante Canônica. Os resultados mostraram uma significante variabilidade de A. guerreronis ao longo de sua área de distribuição, com uma alta variabilidade entre as populações americanas e, por outro lado, uma alta similaridade entre populações africanas e asiáticas. O padrão geográfico de variação de populações do ácaro observado suporta a hipótese de que A. guerreronis é originário da América e foi introduzido na África e Ásia. Algumas inferências relacionadas à taxonomia de ácaros Eriophyoidea foram incluídas.