Seeding the meiotic DNA break machinery and initiating recombination on chromosome axes.

Programmed DNA double-strand break (DSB) formation is a crucial feature of meiosis in most organisms. DSBs initiate recombination-mediated linking of homologous chromosomes, which enables correct chromosome segregation in meiosis. DSBs are generated on chromosome axes by heterooligomeric focal clusters of DSB-factors. Whereas DNA-driven protein condensation is thought to assemble the DSB-machinery, its targeting to chromosome axes is poorly understood. We uncover in mice that efficient biogenesis of DSB-machinery clusters requires seeding by axial IHO1 platforms. Both IHO1 phosphorylation and formation of axial IHO1 platforms are diminished by chemical inhibition of DBF4-dependent kinase (DDK), suggesting that DDK contributes to the control of the axial DSB-machinery. Furthermore, we show that axial IHO1 platforms are based on an interaction between IHO1 and the chromosomal axis component HORMAD1. IHO1-HORMAD1-mediated seeding of the DSB-machinery on axes ensures sufficiency of DSBs for efficient pairing of homologous chromosomes. Without IHO1-HORMAD1 interaction, residual DSBs depend on ANKRD31, which enhances both the seeding and the growth of DSB-machinery clusters. Thus, recombination initiation is ensured by complementary pathways that differentially support seeding and growth of DSB-machinery clusters, thereby synergistically enabling DSB-machinery condensation on chromosomal axes.

The N-terminal modification of HORMAD2 causes its ectopic persistence on synapsed chromosomes without meiotic blockade.

In brief: The dissociation of HORMA domain protein 2 (HORMAD2) from the synaptonemal complex is tightly regulated. This study reveals that the N-terminal region of HORMAD2 is critical for its dissociation from synapsed meiotic chromosomes. Abstract: During meiosis, homologous chromosomes undergo synapsis and recombination. HORMA domain proteins regulate key processes in meiosis. Mammalian HORMAD1 and HORMAD2 localize to unsynapsed chromosome axes but are removed upon synapsis by the TRIP13 AAA+ ATPase. TRIP13 engages the N-terminal region of HORMA domain proteins to induce an open conformation, resulting in the disassembly of protein complexes. Here, we report introduction of a 3×FLAG-HA tag to the N-terminus of HORMAD2 in mice. Coimmunoprecipitation coupled with mass spectrometry identified HORMAD1 and SYCP2 as HORMAD2-associated proteins in the testis. Unexpectedly, the N-terminal tagging of HORMAD2 resulted in its abnormal persistence along synapsed regions in pachynema and ectopic localization to telomeres in diplonema. Super-resolution microscopy revealed that 3×FLAG-HA-HORMAD2 was distributed along the central region of the synaptonemal complex, whereas wild-type HORMAD1 persisted along the lateral elements in 3×FLAG-HA-HORMAD2 meiocytes. Although homozygous mice completed meiosis and were fertile, homozygous males exhibited a significant reduction in sperm count. Collectively, these results suggest that the N-terminus of HORMAD2 is important for its timely removal from meiotic chromosome axes.

Skp1 proteins are structural components of the synaptonemal complex in C. elegans.

The synaptonemal complex (SC) is a zipper-like protein assembly that links homologous chromosomes to regulate recombination and segregation during meiosis. The SC has been notoriously refractory to in vitro reconstitution, thus leaving its molecular organization largely unknown. Here, we report a moonlighting function of two paralogous S-phase kinase-associated protein 1 (Skp1)-related proteins (SKR-1 and SKR-2), well-known adaptors of the Skp1-Cul1-F-box (SCF) ubiquitin ligase, as the key missing components of the SC in Caenorhabditis elegans. SKR proteins repurpose their SCF-forming interfaces to dimerize and interact with meiosis-specific SC proteins, thereby driving synapsis independent of SCF activity. SKR-1 enables the formation of the long-sought-after soluble complex with previously identified SC proteins in vitro, which we propose it to represent a complete SC building block. Our findings demonstrate how a conserved cell cycle regulator has been co-opted to interact with rapidly evolving meiotic proteins to construct the SC and provide a foundation for understanding its structure and assembly mechanisms.

Variant in the synaptonemal complex protein SYCE2 associates with pregnancy loss through effect on recombination.

Two-thirds of all human conceptions are lost, in most cases before clinical detection. The lack of detailed understanding of the causes of pregnancy losses constrains focused counseling for future pregnancies. We have previously shown that a missense variant in synaptonemal complex central element protein 2 (SYCE2), in a key residue for the assembly of the synaptonemal complex backbone, associates with recombination traits. Here we show that it also increases risk of pregnancy loss in a genome-wide association analysis on 114,761 women with reported pregnancy loss. We further show that the variant associates with more random placement of crossovers and lower recombination rate in longer chromosomes but higher in the shorter ones. These results support the hypothesis that some pregnancy losses are due to failures in recombination. They further demonstrate that variants with a substantial effect on the quality of recombination can be maintained in the population.

ZFP541 and KCTD19 regulate chromatin organization and transcription programs for male meiotic progression.

The successful progression of meiosis prophase I requires integrating information from the structural and molecular levels. In this study, we show that ZFP541 and KCTD19 work in the same genetic pathway to regulate the progression of male meiosis and thus fertility. The Zfp541 and/or Kctd19 knockout male mice show various structural and recombination defects including detached chromosome ends, aberrant localization of chromosome axis components and recombination proteins, and globally altered histone modifications. Further analyses on RNA-seq, ChIP-seq, and ATAC-seq data provide molecular evidence for the above defects and reveal that ZFP541/KCTD19 activates the expression of many genes by repressing several major transcription repressors. More importantly, we reveal an unexpected role of ZFP541/KCTD19 in directly modulating chromatin organization. These results suggest that ZFP541/KCTD19 simultaneously regulates the transcription cascade and chromatin organization to ensure the coordinated progression of multiple events at chromosome structural and biochemical levels during meiosis prophase I.

A suppressor screen in C. elegans identifies a multiprotein interaction that stabilizes the synaptonemal complex.

Successful chromosome segregation into gametes depends on tightly regulated interactions between the parental chromosomes. During meiosis, chromosomes are aligned end-to-end by an interface called the synaptonemal complex, which also regulates exchanges between them. However, despite the functional and ultrastructural conservation of this essential interface, how protein-protein interactions within the synaptonemal complex regulate chromosomal interactions remains poorly understood. Here, we describe a genetic interaction in the C. elegans synaptonemal complex, comprised of short segments of three proteins, SYP-1, SYP-3, and SYP-4. We identified the interaction through a saturated suppressor screen of a mutant that destabilizes the synaptonemal complex. The specificity and tight distribution of suppressors suggest a charge-based interface that promotes interactions between synaptonemal complex subunits and, in turn, allows intimate interactions between chromosomes. Our work highlights the power of genetic studies to illuminate the mechanisms that underlie meiotic chromosome interactions.

SCEP1 and SCEP2 are two new components of the synaptonemal complex central element.

The synaptonemal complex (SC) is a proteinaceous structure that forms between homologous chromosomes during meiosis prophase. The SC is widely conserved across species, but its structure and roles during meiotic recombination are still debated. While the SC central region is made up of transverse filaments and central element proteins in mammals and fungi, few central element proteins have been identified in other species. Here we report the identification of two coiled-coil proteins, SCEP1 and SCEP2, that form a complex and localize at the centre of the Arabidopsis thaliana SC. In scep1 and scep2 mutants, chromosomes are aligned but not synapsed (the ZYP1 transverse filament protein is not loaded), crossovers are increased compared with the wild type, interference is lost and heterochiasmy is strongly reduced. We thus report the identification of two plant SC central elements, and homologues of these are found in all major angiosperm clades.

SYCP1 head-to-head assembly is required for chromosome synapsis in mouse meiosis.

In almost all sexually reproducing organisms, meiotic recombination and cell division require the synapsis of homologous chromosomes by a large proteinaceous structure, the synaptonemal complex (SC). While the SC's overall structure is highly conserved across eukaryotes, its constituent proteins diverge between phyla. Transverse filament protein, SYCP1, spans the width of the SC and undergoes amino-terminal head-to-head self-assembly in vitro through a motif that is unusually highly conserved across kingdoms of life. Here, we report creation of mouse mutants, Sycp1L102E and Sycp1L106E, that target SYCP1's head-to-head interface. L106E resulted in a complete loss of synapsis, while L102E had no apparent effect on synapsis, in agreement with their differential effects on the SYCP1 head-to-head interface in molecular dynamics simulations. In Sycp1L106E mice, homologs aligned and recruited low levels of mutant SYCP1 and other SC proteins, but the absence of synapsis led to failure of crossover formation and meiotic arrest. We conclude that SYCP1's conserved head-to-head interface is essential for meiotic chromosome synapsis in vivo.

Sexual dimorphic regulation of recombination by the synaptonemal complex in C. elegans.

In sexually reproducing organisms, germ cells faithfully transmit the genome to the next generation by forming haploid gametes, such as eggs and sperm. Although most meiotic proteins are conserved between eggs and sperm, many aspects of meiosis are sexually dimorphic, including the regulation of recombination. The synaptonemal complex (SC), a large ladder-like structure that forms between homologous chromosomes, is essential for regulating meiotic chromosome organization and promoting recombination. To assess whether sex-specific differences in the SC underpin sexually dimorphic aspects of meiosis, we examined Caenorhabditis elegans SC central region proteins (known as SYP proteins) in oogenesis and spermatogenesis and uncovered sex-specific roles for the SYPs in regulating meiotic recombination. We find that SC composition, specifically SYP-2, SYP-3, SYP-5, and SYP-6, is regulated by sex-specific mechanisms throughout meiotic prophase I. During pachytene, both oocytes and spermatocytes differentially regulate the stability of SYP-2 and SYP-3 within an assembled SC. Further, we uncover that the relative amount of SYP-2 and SYP-3 within the SC is independently regulated in both a sex-specific and a recombination-dependent manner. Specifically, we find that SYP-2 regulates the early steps of recombination in both sexes, while SYP-3 controls the timing and positioning of crossover recombination events across the genomic landscape in only oocytes. Finally, we find that SYP-2 and SYP-3 dosage can influence the composition of the other SYPs in the SC via sex-specific mechanisms during pachytene. Taken together, we demonstrate dosage-dependent regulation of individual SC components with sex-specific functions in recombination. These sexual dimorphic features of the SC provide insights into how spermatogenesis and oogenesis adapted similar chromosome structures to differentially regulate and execute recombination.

Synaptonemal Complex in Human Biology and Disease.

The synaptonemal complex (SC) is a meiosis-specific multiprotein complex that forms between homologous chromosomes during prophase of meiosis I. Upon assembly, the SC mediates the synapses of the homologous chromosomes, leading to the formation of bivalents, and physically supports the formation of programmed double-strand breaks (DSBs) and their subsequent repair and maturation into crossovers (COs), which are essential for genome haploidization. Defects in the assembly of the SC or in the function of the associated meiotic recombination machinery can lead to meiotic arrest and human infertility. The majority of proteins and complexes involved in these processes are exclusively expressed during meiosis or harbor meiosis-specific subunits, although some have dual functions in somatic DNA repair and meiosis. Consistent with their functions, aberrant expression and malfunctioning of these genes have been associated with cancer development. In this review, we focus on the significance of the SC and their meiotic-associated proteins in human fertility, as well as how human genetic variants encoding for these proteins affect the meiotic process and contribute to infertility and cancer development.

Meiotic DNA double-strand break-independent role of protein phosphatase 4 in Hop1 assembly to promote meiotic chromosome axis formation in budding yeast.

Dynamic changes in chromosomal structure that occur during meiotic prophase play an important role in the progression of meiosis. Among them, meiosis-specific chromosomal axis-loop structures are important as a scaffold for integrated control between the meiotic recombination reaction and the associated checkpoint system to ensure accurate chromosome segregation. However, the molecular mechanism of the initial step of chromosome axis-loop construction is not well understood. Here, we showed that, in budding yeast, protein phosphatase 4 (PP4) that primarily counteracts Mec1/Tel1 phosphorylation is required to promote the assembly of a chromosomal axis component Hop1 and Red1 onto meiotic chromatin via interaction with Hop1. PP4, on the other hand, less affects Rec8 assembly. Notably, unlike the previously known function of PP4, this PP4 function in Hop1/Red1 assembly was independent of meiotic DSB-dependent Tel1/Mec1 kinase activities. The defect in Hop1/Red1 assembly in the absence of PP4 function was not suppressed by dysfunction of Pch2, which removes Hop1 protein from the chromosome axis, suggesting that PP4 is required for the initial step of chromatin loading of Hop1 rather than stabilization of Hop1 on axes. These results indicate phosphorylation/dephosphorylation-mediated regulation of Hop1 recruitment onto chromatin during chromosome axis construction before meiotic double-strand break formation.

A small RNA system ensures accurate homologous pairing and unpaired silencing of meiotic chromosomes.

During meiosis, chromosomes with homologous partners undergo synaptonemal complex (SC)-mediated pairing, while the remaining unpaired chromosomes are heterochromatinized through unpaired silencing. Mechanisms underlying homolog recognition during SC formation are still unclear. Here, we show that the Caenorhabditis elegans Argonaute proteins, CSR-1 and its paralog CSR-2, interacting with 22G-RNAs, are required for synaptonemal complex formation with accurate homology. CSR-1 in nuclei and meiotic cohesin, constituting the SC lateral elements, were associated with nonsimple DNA repeats, including minisatellites and transposons, and weakly associated with coding genes. CSR-1-associated CeRep55 minisatellites were expressing 22G-RNAs and long noncoding (lnc) RNAs that colocalized with synaptonemal complexes on paired chromosomes and with cohesin regions of unpaired chromosomes. CeRep55 multilocus deletions reduced the efficiencies of homologous pairing and unpaired silencing, which were supported by the csr-1 activity. Moreover, CSR-1 and CSR-2 were required for proper heterochromatinization of unpaired chromosomes. These findings suggest that CSR-1 and CSR-2 play crucial roles in homology recognition, achieving accurate SC formation between chromosome pairs and condensing unpaired chromosomes by targeting repeat-derived lncRNAs.

GRAS-1 is a novel regulator of early meiotic chromosome dynamics in C. elegans.

Chromosome movements and licensing of synapsis must be tightly regulated during early meiosis to ensure accurate chromosome segregation and avoid aneuploidy, although how these steps are coordinated is not fully understood. Here we show that GRAS-1, the worm homolog of mammalian GRASP/Tamalin and CYTIP, coordinates early meiotic events with cytoskeletal forces outside the nucleus. GRAS-1 localizes close to the nuclear envelope (NE) in early prophase I and interacts with NE and cytoskeleton proteins. Delayed homologous chromosome pairing, synaptonemal complex (SC) assembly, and DNA double-strand break repair progression are partially rescued by the expression of human CYTIP in gras-1 mutants, supporting functional conservation. However, Tamalin, Cytip double knockout mice do not exhibit obvious fertility or meiotic defects, suggesting evolutionary differences between mammals. gras-1 mutants show accelerated chromosome movement during early prophase I, implicating GRAS-1 in regulating chromosome dynamics. GRAS-1-mediated regulation of chromosome movement is DHC-1-dependent, placing it acting within the LINC-controlled pathway, and depends on GRAS-1 phosphorylation at a C-terminal S/T cluster. We propose that GRAS-1 coordinates the early steps of homology search and licensing of SC assembly by regulating the pace of chromosome movement in early prophase I.

Structural maturation of SYCP1-mediated meiotic chromosome synapsis by SYCE3.

In meiosis, a supramolecular protein structure, the synaptonemal complex (SC), assembles between homologous chromosomes to facilitate their recombination. Mammalian SC formation is thought to involve hierarchical zipper-like assembly of an SYCP1 protein lattice that recruits stabilizing central element (CE) proteins as it extends. Here we combine biochemical approaches with separation-of-function mutagenesis in mice to show that, rather than stabilizing the SYCP1 lattice, the CE protein SYCE3 actively remodels this structure during synapsis. We find that SYCP1 tetramers undergo conformational change into 2:1 heterotrimers on SYCE3 binding, removing their assembly interfaces and disrupting the SYCP1 lattice. SYCE3 then establishes a new lattice by its self-assembly mimicking the role of the disrupted interface in tethering together SYCP1 dimers. SYCE3 also interacts with CE complexes SYCE1-SIX6OS1 and SYCE2-TEX12, providing a mechanism for their recruitment. Thus, SYCE3 remodels the SYCP1 lattice into a CE-binding integrated SYCP1-SYCE3 lattice to achieve long-range synapsis by a mature SC.

Recruitment of Polo-like kinase couples synapsis to meiotic progression via inactivation of CHK-2.

Meiotic chromosome segregation relies on synapsis and crossover (CO) recombination between homologous chromosomes. These processes require multiple steps that are coordinated by the meiotic cell cycle and monitored by surveillance mechanisms. In diverse species, failures in chromosome synapsis can trigger a cell cycle delay and/or lead to apoptosis. How this key step in 'homolog engagement' is sensed and transduced by meiotic cells is unknown. Here we report that in C. elegans, recruitment of the Polo-like kinase PLK-2 to the synaptonemal complex triggers phosphorylation and inactivation of CHK-2, an early meiotic kinase required for pairing, synapsis, and double-strand break (DSB) induction. Inactivation of CHK-2 terminates DSB formation and enables CO designation and cell cycle progression. These findings illuminate how meiotic cells ensure CO formation and accurate chromosome segregation.

Most animals, plants, and fungi reproduce sexually, meaning that the genetic information from two parents combines during fertilization to produce offspring. This parental genetic information is carried within the reproductive cells in the form of chromosomes. Reproductive cells in the ovaries or testes first multiply through normal cell division, but then go through a unique type of cell division called meiosis. During meiosis, pairs of chromosomes ­ the two copies inherited from each parent ­ must find each other and physically line up from one end to the other. As they align side-by-side with their partners, chromosomes also go through a mixing process called recombination, during which regions of one chromosome cross over to the paired chromosome to exchange information. Scientists are still working to understand how this process of chromosome alignment and crossing-over is controlled. If chromosomes fail to line up or cross over during meiosis, eggs or sperm can end up with too many or too few chromosomes. If these faulty reproductive cells combine during fertilization this can lead to birth defects and developmental problems. To minimize this problem, reproductive cells have a quality control mechanism during meiosis called "crossover assurance", which limits how often mistakes occur. Zhang et al. have investigated how cells can tell if their chromosomes have accomplished this as they undergo meiosis. They looked at egg cells of the roundworm C. elegans, whose meiotic processes are similar to those in humans. In C. elegans, a protein called CHK-2 regulates many of the early events during meiosis. During successful meiosis, CHK-2 is active for only a short amount of time. But if there are problems during recombination, CHK-2 stays active for longer and prevents the cell division from proceeding. Zhang et al. uncovered another protein that affects for how long CHK-2 stays switched on. When chromosomes align with their partners, a protein called PLK-2 sticks to other proteins at the interface between the aligned chromosomes. A combination of microscopy and test tube experiments showed that when PLK-2 is bound to this specific location, it can turn off CHK-2. However, if the chromosome alignment fails, PLK-2 is not activated to switch off CHK-2. Therefore, CHK-2 is only switched off when the chromosomes are properly aligned and move on to the next step in crossing-over, which then allows meiosis to proceed. Thus, PLK-2 and CHK-2 work together to detect errors and to slow down meiosis if necessary. Further experiments in mammalian reproductive cells will reveal how similar the crossover assurance mechanism is in different organisms. In the future, improved understanding of quality control during meiosis may eventually lead to improvements in assisted reproduction.

ZYP1-mediated recruitment of PCH2 to the synaptonemal complex remodels the chromosome axis leading to crossover restriction.

Chromosome axis-associated HORMA domain proteins (HORMADs), e.g. ASY1 in Arabidopsis, are crucial for meiotic recombination. ASY1, as other HORMADs, is assembled on the axis at early meiosis and depleted when homologous chromosomes synapse. Puzzlingly, both processes are catalyzed by AAA+ ATPase PCH2 together with its cofactor COMET. Here, we show that the ASY1 remodeling complex is temporally and spatially differently assembled. While PCH2 and COMET appear to directly interact in the cytoplasm in early meiosis, PCH2 is recruited by the transverse filament protein ZYP1 and brought to the ASY1-bound COMET assuring the timely removal of ASY1 during chromosome synapsis. Since we found that the PCH2 homolog TRIP13 also binds to the ZYP1 homolog SYCP1 in mouse, we postulate that this mechanism is conserved among eukaryotes. Deleting the PCH2 binding site of ZYP1 led to a failure of ASY1 removal. Interestingly, the placement of one obligatory crossover per homologous chromosome pair, compromised by ZYP1 depletion, is largely restored in this separation-of-function zyp1 allele suggesting that crossover assurance is promoted by synapsis. In contrast, this zyp1 allele, similar to the zyp1 null mutant, showed elevated type I crossover numbers indicating that PCH2-mediated eviction of ASY1 from the axis restricts crossover formation.

Coiled-coil structure of meiosis protein TEX12 and conformational regulation by its C-terminal tip.

Meiosis protein TEX12 is an essential component of the synaptonemal complex (SC), which mediates homologous chromosome synapsis. It is also recruited to centrosomes in meiosis, and aberrantly in certain cancers, leading to centrosome dysfunction. Within the SC, TEX12 forms an intertwined complex with SYCE2 that undergoes fibrous assembly, driven by TEX12's C-terminal tip. However, we hitherto lack structural information regarding SYCE2-independent functions of TEX12. Here, we report X-ray crystal structures of TEX12 mutants in three distinct conformations, and utilise solution light and X-ray scattering to determine its wild-type dimeric four-helical coiled-coil structure. TEX12 undergoes conformational change upon C-terminal tip mutations, indicating that the sequence responsible for driving SYCE2-TEX12 assembly within the SC also controls the oligomeric state and conformation of isolated TEX12. Our findings provide the structural basis for SYCE2-independent roles of TEX12, including the possible regulation of SC assembly, and its known functions in meiotic centrosomes and cancer.

ATM/ATR kinases link the synaptonemal complex and DNA double-strand break repair pathway choice.

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are deleterious lesions, which must be repaired precisely to maintain genomic stability. During meiosis, programmed DSBs are repaired via homologous recombination (HR) while repair using the nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ) pathway is inhibited, thereby ensuring crossover formation and accurate chromosome segregation.1,2 How DSB repair pathway choice is implemented during meiosis is unknown. In C. elegans, meiotic DSB repair takes place in the context of the fully formed, highly dynamic zipper-like structure present between homologous chromosomes called the synaptonemal complex (SC).3,4,5,6,7,8,9 The SC consists of a pair of lateral elements bridged by a central region composed of the SYP proteins in C. elegans. How the structural components of the SC are regulated to maintain the architectural integrity of the assembled SC around DSB repair sites remained unclear. Here, we show that SYP-4, a central region component of the SC, is phosphorylated at Serine 447 in a manner dependent on DSBs and the ATM/ATR DNA damage response kinases. We show that this SYP-4 phosphorylation is critical for preserving the SC structure following exogenous (γ-IR-induced) DSB formation and for promoting normal DSB repair progression and crossover patterning following SPO-11-dependent and exogenous DSBs. We propose a model in which ATM/ATR-dependent phosphorylation of SYP-4 at the S447 site plays important roles both in maintaining the architectural integrity of the SC following DSB formation and in warding off repair via the NHEJ repair pathway, thereby preventing aneuploidy.

Yeast polyubiquitin unit regulates synaptonemal complex formation and recombination during meiosis.

Ubiquitin is highly conserved in most eukaryotes and involved in diverse physiological processes, including cell division, protein quality control, and protein degradation mediated by the ubiquitin-proteasome system after heat shock, glucose-starvation, and oxidative stress. However, the role of the ubiquitin gene UBI4, which contains five consecutive head-to-tail ubiquitin repeats, in meiosis has not been investigated. In this study, we show that the Saccharomyces cerevisiae polyubiquitin precursor gene, UBI4, is required to promote synaptonemal complex (SC) formation and suppress excess double-strand break formation. Moreover, the proportion of Zip1 polycomplexes, which indicate abnormal SC formation, in cells with a mutation in UBI4 (i.e., ubi4Δ cells) is higher than that of wild-type cells, implying that the UBI4 plays an important role in the early meiotic prophase I. Interestingly, although ubi4Δ cells rarely form full-length SCs in the pachytene stage of prophase I, the Zip3 foci are still seen, as in wild-type cells. Moreover, ubi4Δ cells proficiently form crossover and noncrossover products with a slight delay compared to wild-type cells, suggesting that UBI4 is dispensable in SC-coupled recombination. Our findings demonstrate that UBI4 exhibits dual functions that are associated with both positive and negative roles in SC formation and recombination during meiosis.