Long-range regulation by shared retinoic acid response elements modulates dynamic expression of posterior Hoxb genes in CNS development.

Retinoic acid (RA) signaling plays an important role in determining the anterior boundary of Hox gene expression in the neural tube during embryogenesis. In particular, RA signaling is implicated in a rostral expansion of the neural expression domain of 5׳ Hoxb genes (Hoxb9-Hoxb5) in mice. However, underlying mechanisms for this gene regulation have remained elusive due to the lack of RA responsive element (RARE) in the 5׳ half of the HoxB cluster. To identify cis-regulatory elements required for the rostral expansion, we developed a recombineering technology to serially label multiple genes with different reporters in a single bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) vector containing the mouse HoxB cluster. This allowed us to simultaneously monitor the expression of multiple genes. In contrast to plasmid-based reporters, transgenic BAC reporters faithfully recapitulated endogenous gene expression patterns of the Hoxb genes including the rostral expansion. Combined inactivation of two RAREs, DE-RARE and ENE-RARE, in the BAC completely abolished the rostral expansion of the 5׳ Hoxb genes. Knock-out of endogenous DE-RARE lead to significantly reduced expression of multiple Hoxb genes and attenuated Hox gene response to exogenous RA treatment in utero. Regulatory potential of DE-RARE was further demonstrated by its ability to anteriorize 5׳ Hoxa gene expression in the neural tube when inserted into a HoxA BAC reporter. Our data demonstrate that multiple RAREs cooperate to remotely regulate 5׳ Hoxb genes during CNS development, providing a new insight into the mechanisms for gene regulation within the Hox clusters.

3D organization of telomeres in porcine neutrophils and analysis of LPS-activation effect.

BACKGROUND: While the essential role of 3D nuclear architecture on nuclear functions has been demonstrated for various cell types, information available for neutrophils, essential components of the immune system, remains limited. In this study, we analysed the spatial arrangements of telomeres which play a central role in cell fate. Our studies were carried out in swine, which is an excellent model organism for both biomedical research and agronomic applications. We isolated bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-containing subtelomeric p and q sequences specific to each porcine chromosome. This allowed us to study the behaviour of p and q telomeres of homologous chromosomes for seven pairs chosen for their difference in length and morphology. This was performed using 3D-FISH on structurally preserved neutrophils, and confocal microscopy. Resting and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated states were investigated to ascertain whether a response to a pathogen aggression modifies this organization. RESULTS: The positions of the p and q telomeres relative to the nuclear outer border were determined in the two states. All p telomeres changed their position significantly during the activation process, although the effect was less pronounced for the q telomeres. The patterns of telomeric associations between homologs and their frequencies were analysed for 7 pairs of chromosomes. This analysis revealed that the distribution of pp, qq and pq associations differs significantly among the 7 chromosomes. This distribution does not fit with the theoretical distribution for each chromosome, suggesting that preferential associations occur between subtelomeres. CONCLUSIONS: The percentage of nuclei harbouring at least one telomeric association between homologs varies significantly among the chromosomes, the smallest metacentric chromosome SSC12, which is also the richest in gene-density, harbouring the highest value. The distribution of types of telomeric associations is highly dependent on the chromosomes and is not affected by the activation process. The frequencies of telomeric associations are also highly dependent on the type of association and the type of chromosome. Overall, the LPS-activation process induces only minor changes in these patterns of associations. When telomeric associations occur, the associations of p and q arms from the same chromosome are the most frequent, suggesting that "chromosome bending" occurs in neutrophils as previously observed in gametes.

Cloning of a conserved receptor-like protein kinase gene and its use as a functional marker for homoeologous group-2 chromosomes of the triticeae species.

Receptor-like kinases (RLKs) play broad biological roles in plants. We report on a conserved receptor-like protein kinase (RPK) gene from wheat and other Triticeae species. The TaRPK1 was isolated from the Triticum aestivum cv. Prins - Triticum timopheevii introgression line IGVI-465 carrying the powdery mildew resistance gene Pm6. The TaRPK1 was mapped to homoeologous chromosomes 2A (TaRPK1-2A), 2D (TaRPK1-2D) and the Pm6-carrier chromosome 2G (TaRPK1-2G) of IGVI-465. Under the tested conditions, only the TaRPK1-2G allele was actively transcribed, producing two distinct transcripts via alternative splicing. The predicted 424-amino acid protein of TaRPK1-2G contained a signal peptide, a transmembrane domain and an intracellular serine/threonine kinase domain, but lacked a typical extracellular domain. The expression of TaRPK1-2G gene was up-regulated upon the infection by Blumeria graminis f.sp. tritici (Bgt) and treatment with methyl jasmonate (MeJA), but down-regulated in response to treatments of SA and ABA. Over-expression of TaRPK1-2G in the powdery mildew susceptible wheat variety Prins by a transient expression assay showed that it slightly reduced the haustorium index of the infected Bgt. These data indicated that TaRPK1-2G participated in the defense response to Bgt infection and in the JA signaling pathway. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that TaRPK1-2G was highly conserved among plant species, and the amino acid sequence similarity of TaRPK1-2G among grass species was more than 86%. Based on its conservation, the RPK gene-based STS primers were designed, and used to amplify the RPK orthologs from the homoeologous group-2 chromosomes of all the tested Triticeae species, such as chromosome 2G of T. timopheevii, 2R of Secale cereale, 2H of Hordeum vulgare, 2S of Aegilops speltoides, 2S(l) of Ae. longissima, 2M(g) of Ae. geniculata, 2S(p) and 2U(p) of Ae. peregrina. The developed STS markers serve as conserved functional markers for the identification of homoeologous group-2 chromosomes of the Triticeae species.

Large-scale chromatin structure of inducible genes: transcription on a condensed, linear template.

The structure of interphase chromosomes, and in particular the changes in large-scale chromatin structure accompanying transcriptional activation, remain poorly characterized. Here we use light microscopy and in vivo immunogold labeling to directly visualize the interphase chromosome conformation of 1-2 Mbp chromatin domains formed by multi-copy BAC transgenes containing 130-220 kb of genomic DNA surrounding the DHFR, Hsp70, or MT gene loci. We demonstrate near-endogenous transcription levels in the context of large-scale chromatin fibers compacted nonuniformly well above the 30-nm chromatin fiber. An approximately 1.5-3-fold extension of these large-scale chromatin fibers accompanies transcriptional induction and active genes remain mobile. Heat shock-induced Hsp70 transgenes associate with the exterior of nuclear speckles, with Hsp70 transcripts accumulating within the speckle. Live-cell imaging reveals distinct dynamic events, with Hsp70 transgenes associating with adjacent speckles, nucleating new speckles, or moving to preexisting speckles. Our results call for reexamination of classical models of interphase chromosome organization.

Tissue-specific expression of a BAC transgene targeted to the Hprt locus in mouse embryonic stem cells.

The hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase (Hprt) locus has been shown to have minimal influence on transgene expression when used as a surrogate site in the mouse genome. We have developed a method to transfer bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) as a single copy into the partially deleted Hprt locus of embryonic stem cells. BACs were modified by Cre/loxP recombination to contain the sequences necessary for homologous recombination into and complementation of the partially deleted Hprt locus. Modified BACs were shown to undergo homologous recombination into the genome intact, to be stably transmitted through the germ line of transgenic mice, and to be expressed in the proper tissue-specific manner. This technology will facilitate many studies in which correct interpretation of data depends on developmentally appropriate transgene expression in the absence of rearrangements or deletions of endogenous DNA.

Parameters influencing high-efficiency transfection of bacterial artificial chromosomes into cultured mammalian cells.

Although bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) provide a well-characterized resource for the analysis of large chromosomal domains, low transfection rates have proven a significant limitation for their use in cell culture models. Using TP53 BAC clones that contain expression cassettes for enhanced green fluorescent protein or red fluorescent protein, we have examined conditions that promote BAC transfection in hamster, human, and mouse cell lines. Atomic force microscopy shows that BAC transfection efficiency correlates with the generation of small, highly condensed but dispersed lipid: BAC DNA transfection complexes. BAC DNA purity and concentration are critical for good transfection; debris from purification columns induces the formation of large aggregates that do not gain entry into the cell, and DNA concentrations must be optimized to promote intramolecular condensation rather than intermolecular linking, which also causes aggregation and diminished transfection efficiency. The expression of both markers and genes within BACs initially occurs at lower levels than observed with plasmids, requiring 3-5 days to evaluate the transfection results. We also show that BACs can be co-transfected with other BACs, which provides for increased experimental flexibility.

Condensation by DNA looping facilitates transfer of large DNA molecules into mammalian cells.

Experimental studies of complete mammalian genes and other genetic domains are impeded by the difficulty of introducing large DNA molecules into cells in culture. Previously we have shown that GST-Z2, a protein that contains three zinc fingers and a proline-rich multimerization domain from the polydactyl zinc finger protein RIP60 fused to glutathione S-transferase (GST), mediates DNA binding and looping in vitro. Atomic force microscopy showed that GST-Z2 is able to condense 130-150 kb bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) into protein-DNA complexes containing multiple DNA loops. Condensation of the DNA loops onto the Z2 protein-BAC DNA core complexes with cationic lipid resulted in particles that were readily transferred into multiple cell types in culture. Transfer of total genomic linear DNA containing amplified DHFR genes into DHFR(-) cells by GST-Z2 resulted in a 10-fold higher transformation rate than calcium phosphate co-precipitation. Chinese hamster ovarian cells transfected with a BAC containing the human TP53 gene locus expressed p53, showing native promoter elements are active after GST-Z2-mediated gene transfer. Because DNA condensation by GST-Z2 does not require the introduction of specific recognition sequences into the DNA substrate, condensation by the Z2 domain of RIP60 may be used in conjunction with a variety of other agents to provide a flexible and efficient non-viral platform for the delivery of large genes into mammalian cells.

Visualization of DNA and RNA molecules, and protein-DNA complexes for electron microscopy.

This article provides step-by step instructions for the preparation of double- and single-stranded DNA and RNA molecules and protein-DNA complexes for electron microscopy (EM). Absorption, spreading, staining, dark-field imaging, and metal shadowing techniques are described in detail. A number of examples are illustrated on analysis of DNA replication, DNA repair and DNA recombination to demonstrate the usefulness of the technique for EM visualisation. Application of immunogold labeling of specific protein in DNA-protein complexes is also covered.