The Five Cs of Positive Youth Development: Configurations of Thriving in Four U.S. Adolescent Samples.

Positive youth development (PYD) models are widespread, but the empirical evidence for them is primarily nomothetic (i.e., investigations of universal patterns). Contemporary developmental theory suggests that concepts and processes within PYD models should also be explored with respect to specificity. This study demonstrates how the Five Cs Model, a predominant PYD model, can be advanced using group-differential methods. Secondary data from four studies of adolescents were used to test: (1) Whether there were subgroups who varied in their patterns of scores across the Five Cs, and (2) Whether subgroups also varied in Contribution behaviors. Unexpectedly, the four data sets used could not be combined, yielding an opportunity to discuss consistencies and inconsistencies in findings across the four data sets through contextual and sample differences. Findings demonstrate how understanding specificity in theorized concepts and processes in PYD models can complement studies of universal patterns, which are both necessary to advance PYD research and practice.

The mindful adolescent: Developmental changes in nonreactivity to inner experiences and its association with emotional well-being.

Little is known about the naturalistic development of mindfulness in adolescence and how it relates to changes in emotional well-being. The current longitudinal study examined the development of one dimension of mindfulness, nonreactivity to difficult inner experience (or in more colloquial terms, being able to notice, but "take a step back" from distressing thoughts), in a racially and socioeconomically diverse sample (N = 1,657) during the transition from middle school to high school. Students participated in up to four assessment waves, from fall of 8th grade through spring of 9th grade, in which they completed self-report measures assessing nonreactivity, perceived stress, and positive and negative affect. Latent growth curve models indicated that levels of nonreactivity increased during the 2-year study period. Developmental change in nonreactivity varied minimally by gender, socioeconomic status (SES), and race/ethnicity. Parallel process latent growth curve models showed that changes in nonreactivity were associated with concomitant reductions in perceived stress and negative affect, and increases in positive affect. Random intercept cross-lagged panel models showed that within-person nonreactivity prospectively predicted changes in perceived stress and positive affect, but not negative affect. This study is among the first to track the naturalistic development of mindfulness during adolescence. Results suggest that the nonreactivity dimension of mindfulness is associated with aspects of emotional well-being during the transition from middle school to high school. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The Practicalities and Perils of Ambulatory Assessment's Promise: Introduction to a Special Section.

Ambulatory assessment (AA) offers one of the most exciting approaches for opening the dynamic "black box" of adolescents' daily lives. In this introduction, we spotlight AA's surprisingly restricted market share within adolescent scholarship. We describe thorny challenges these intense methods can pose when conducting adolescent research "in situ" and underscore that capturing quality AA data means placing adolescents' developmental stage at the forefront. The novel research reported in this special section speaks to these challenges and underscores the promise of AA for conducting developmentally salient science. The nine articles included in the section span multiple disciplines (Sociology, Psychology, Public Health) and reflect diverse viewpoints, approaches, and theories. All provide multiple novel best-practice strategies for conducting AA scholarship with adolescents.

Multiple Trajectories in Anxious Solitary Youths: the Middle School Transition as a Turning Point in Development.

This study aimed to identify divergent patterns of individual continuity and change in anxious solitude (AS) in the last half of elementary school (3rd - 5th grade) and the first two years of middle school (6th - 7th grade), and test predictors and outcomes of these pathways. Participants were 688 youths (girls n = 354, 51.5%; M age at outset = 8.66 years, SD = 0.50). Latent class growth analyses identified two AS trajectory classes in elementary school (moderate-decreasing, high-increasing) and three in middle school (low-stable, low-increasing, high-decreasing). The elementary school moderate-decreasing class was two-and-a-half times more likely than others to end in the middle school low-stable class. In contrast, the elementary school high-increasing class was twice as likely as others to end in the middle school low-increasing class, and four times as likely to end in the middle school high-decreasing class. Peer exclusion predicted membership in increasing AS trajectory classes in both elementary and middle school, whereas the middle school high-decreasing AS trajectory class demonstrated decreasing peer exclusion during middle school. Likewise, inability to defend oneself predicted membership in increasing AS trajectory classes in both elementary and middle school, whereas membership in the middle school high-decreasing AS trajectory class was predicted by inability to defend oneself in elementary but not middle school. High-decreasing AS youths' improved ability to defend themselves in middle school appeared to be related to a cascade of improvements in related domains. In contrast, membership in increasing AS classes in elementary and middle school predicted symptoms of social anxiety and depression.

Developmental Trajectories of Shyness-Sensitivity from Middle Childhood to Early Adolescence in China: Contributions of Peer Preference and Mutual Friendship.

This study examined trajectories of shyness-sensitivity and the contributions of peer relationships to these trajectories in Chinese children. Participants were 1061 school-age children (537 boys), initially in fifth grade (Mage = 11 years), in China. Longitudinal data on shyness-sensitivity were collected from peer assessments once a year for four years. In addition, peer nomination data on peer acceptance-rejection and mutual friendship were collected in the initial study. Four distinct shyness-sensitivity trajectories were identified: Low-Stable, Low-Increasing, Moderate-Decreasing, and High-Stable. Children with high peer acceptance scores were more likely to be in the High-Stable and Moderate-Decreasing trajectories than in the Low-Stable and Low-Increasing trajectories. The analysis of predictors of the within-trajectory growth rate indicated that children who were more liked by peers increased their shyness-sensitivity more slowly within the Low-Increasing trajectory and that children with mutual friendship involvement decreased their shyness-sensitivity more slowly within the Moderate-Decreasing trajectory. The results suggested that positive relationships might serve to attenuate developmental changes of shyness-sensitivity within these trajectories. The results were discussed in the Chinese context.

Development of Aggression Subtypes from Childhood to Adolescence: a Group-Based Multi-Trajectory Modelling Perspective.

The persistence of elevated subtypes of aggression beginning in childhood have been associated with long-term maladaptive outcomes. Yet it remains unclear to what extent there are clusters of individuals following similar developmental trajectories across forms (i.e., physical and indirect) and functions (i.e., proactive and reactive) of aggression. We aimed to identify groups of children with distinct profiles of the joint development of forms and functions of aggression and to identify risk factors for group membership. A sample of 787 children was followed from birth to adolescence. Parent and teacher reports, and standardised assessments were used to measure two forms and two functions of aggressive behaviour, between six and 13 years of age along with preceding child, maternal, and family-level risk-factors. Analyses were conducted using a group-based multi-trajectory modelling approach. Five trajectory groups emerged: non-aggressors, low-stable, moderate-engagers, high-desisting, and high-chronic. Coercive parenting increased membership risk in the moderate-engagers and high-chronic groups. Lower maternal IQ increased membership risk in both high-desisting and high-chronic groups, whereas maternal depression increased membership risk in the high-desisting group only. Never being breastfed increased membership risk in the moderate-engagers group. Boys were at greater risk for belonging to groups displaying elevated aggression. Individuals with chronic aggression problems use all subtypes of aggression. Risk factors suggest that prevention programs should start early in life and target mothers with lower IQ. Strategies to deal with maternal depression and enhance positive parenting while replacing coercive parenting tactics should be highlighted in programming efforts.

Transitions of Developmental Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms Between Junior and Senior High School Among Youths in Taiwan: Linkages to Symptoms in Young Adulthood.

We investigated the heterogeneous developmental trajectories of depressive symptoms in junior and senior high school, the transitions to different trajectories after entering senior high school, and the linkages to the development of depressive symptoms in early adulthood among Taiwanese adolescents. An eight-wave longitudinal data set was analyzed, including 2687 Taiwanese adolescents (51.2% boys, M age = 14.3 at first wave). Using a manual three-step latent transition growth mixture model, we found that a three-class solution fit the data for both junior high school (termed high-improving, cumulative, and JS-low-stable) and senior high school period (termed heightening, moderate-stable, and HS-low-stable). The depressive symptoms of most individuals maintained at a low level (i.e., low-stable) from adolescence to early adulthood; however, nearly a quarter of the adolescents reported depressive symptoms that were moderately or highly severe in senior high school and beyond. More than 30% of the participants experienced transitioning into a different developmental trajectory between junior and senior high school. When perceiving a higher level of paternal behavioral control, adolescents categorized in the high-improving class in junior high school would have a higher chance to transition to the moderate-stable class than to HS-low-stable class in senior high school. Adolescent boys and girls did not differ in the probability of transitioning between trajectories across junior and senior high school. However, a clear and consistent pattern of symptoms between late adolescence and early adulthood was not observed. These results help elucidate the heterogeneity and fluidity associated with the development of depressive symptoms between early adolescence and early adulthood in light of school transition among youths in Taiwan.

A Six-Year Longitudinal Study of Texting Trajectories During Adolescence.

This study examined growth trajectories of texting (and other media) over a 6-year time period. Participants were 425 adolescents from Washington, USA (age 13 at Time 1, age 18 at Time 6; 48% male, 68% European American). Analyses suggested a curvilinear pattern for texting and social media use, with rates peaking during midadolescence. There was also considerable heterogeneity in trajectories of texting. A growth mixture model revealed four distinct classes of individuals: perpetuals (14%), decreasers (7%), moderates (68%), and increasers (11%). Higher levels of depression, being a male, and coming from a single-parent family predicted being a "perpetual" texter. Perpetuals had the most problematic outcomes compared to other classes, including higher depression, anxiety, aggression, and poor relationships with fathers.

Differential developmental profiles of adolescents using sexually explicit internet material.

This study used a person-centered approach to examine whether different developmental trajectories of boys' and girls' use of sexually explicit Internet material (SEIM) exist, which factors predict these trajectories, and whether sexual behavior develops differently for adolescents in these trajectories. A combination of latent class growth analysis on SEIM use and latent growth curve analysis on sexual behavior was used on four-wave longitudinal data of 787 eighth through tenth grade Dutch adolescents. Among boys, four SEIM use trajectories were identified, which were labeled Nonuse/Infrequent Use, Strongly Increasing Use, Occasional Use, and Decreasing Use. Among girls, a large Stable Nonuse/Infrequent Use and smaller Strongly Increasing Use and Stable Occasional Use trajectories were distinguished. Higher initial levels and/or stronger increases in SEIM use were predicted by demographic, social contextual, personal, and media use characteristics, including a stronger sexual interest, a higher degree of perceived realism regarding sexualized Internet content, and more permissive sexual attitudes. Moreover, initial levels of and, to some extent, developmental changes in sexual behavior varied for boys and girls in the different SEIM use trajectories. Whereas some adolescents showed concurrent low levels, or parallel strong increases in SEIM use and sexual behavior, a subgroup of boys decreased their SEIM use while increasing their sexual behavior.

Early-life predictors of internalizing symptom trajectories in Canadian children.

BACKGROUND: Previous research examining the development of anxious and depressive symptoms (i.e., internalizing symptoms) from childhood to adolescence has often assumed that trajectories of these symptoms do not vary across individuals. The purpose of this study was to identify distinct trajectories of internalizing symptoms from childhood to adolescence, and to identify risk factors for membership in these trajectory groups. In particular, we sought to identify risk factors associated with early appearing (i.e., child onset) symptoms versus symptoms that increase in adolescence (i.e., adolescent onset). METHOD: Drawing on longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth, latent class growth modeling (LCGM) was used to identify distinct trajectories of internalizing symptoms for 6,337 individuals, from age 4-5 to 14-15. Multinomial regression was used to examine potential early-life risk factors for membership in a particular trajectory group. RESULTS: Five trajectories were identified as follows: "low stable" (68%; reference group), "adolescent onset" (10%), "moderate stable" (12%), "high childhood" (6%), and "high stable" (4%). Membership in the "adolescent onset" group was predicted by child gender (greater odds for girls), stressful life events, hostile parenting, aggression, and hyperactivity. Membership in the "high stable" and "high childhood" trajectory groups (i.e., child-onset) was additionally predicted by maternal depression, family dysfunction, and difficult temperament. Also, several significant gender interactions were observed. CONCLUSIONS: Causal mechanisms for child and adolescent depression and anxiety may differ according to time of onset, as well as child gender. Some early factors may put girls at greater risk for internalizing problems than boys.

Trajectories of depression and anxiety symptoms in adolescent girls: a comparison of parallel trajectory approaches.

Longitudinal mixture models have become popular in the literature. However, modest attention has been paid to whether these models provide a better fit to the data than growth models. Here, we compared longitudinal mixture models to growth models in the context of changes in depression and anxiety symptoms in a community sample of girls from age 10 to 17. Model comparisons found that the preferred solution was a 5-class parallel process growth mixture model that differed in the course of depression and anxiety symptoms reflecting both ordering of symptoms and qualitative group differences. Comparisons between classes revealed substantive differences on a number of outcomes using this solution. Findings are discussed in the context of clinical assessment and implementation of growth mixture models.

Assessment of skeletal maturity in scoliosis patients to determine clinical management: a new classification scheme using distal radius and ulna radiographs.

BACKGROUND: Assessment of skeletal maturity in patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) is important to guide clinical management. Understanding growth peak and cessation is crucial to determine clinical observational intervals, timing to initiate or end bracing therapy, and when to instrument and fuse. The commonly used clinical or radiologic methods to assess skeletal maturity are still deficient in predicting the growth peak and cessation among adolescents, and bone age is too complicated to apply. PURPOSE: To address these concerns, we describe a new distal radius and ulna (DRU) classification scheme to assess skeletal maturity. STUDY DESIGN: A prospective study. PATIENT SAMPLE: One hundred fifty young, female AIS patients with hand x-rays and no previous history of spine surgery from a single institute were assessed. OUTCOME MEASURES: Radius and ulna plain radiographs, and various anthropomorphic parameters were assessed. METHODS: We identified various stages of radius and ulna epiphysis maturity, which were graded as R1-R11 for the radius and U1-U9 for the ulna. The bone age, development of sexual characteristics, standing height, sitting height, arm span, radius length, and tibia length were studied prospectively at each stage of these epiphysis changes. RESULTS: Standing height, sitting height, and arm span growth were at their peak during stages R7 (mean, 11.4 years old) and U5 (mean, 11.0 years old). The long bone growths also demonstrated a common peak at R7 and U5. Cessation of height and arm span growth was noted after stages R10 (mean, 15.6 years old) and U9 (mean, 17.3 years old). CONCLUSIONS: The new DRU classification is a practical and easy-to-use scheme that can provide skeletal maturation status. This classification scheme provides close relationship with adolescent growth spurt and cessation of growth. This classification may have a tremendous utility in improving clinical-decision making in the conservative and operative management of scoliosis patients.

Ethnic identity in everyday life: the influence of identity development status.

The current study explores the intersection of ethnic identity development and significance in a sample of 354 diverse adolescents (mean age 14). Adolescents completed surveys five times a day for 1 week. Cluster analyses revealed four identity clusters: diffused, foreclosed, moratorium, and achieved. Achieved adolescents reported the highest levels of identity salience across situations, followed by moratorium adolescents. Achieved and moratorium adolescents also reported a positive association between identity salience and private regard. For foreclosed and achieved adolescents reporting low levels of centrality, identity salience was associated with lower private regard. For foreclosed and achieved adolescents reporting high levels of centrality, identity salience was associated with higher private regard.

Predicción de la maduración somática a partir de variables antropométricas: validación y propuesta de ecuaciones para escolares de Brasil / Predicting somatic maturation from anthropometric variables: validation and proposed equations to school in Brazil

Introducción: La valoración de la maduración biológica es considerada esencial para la salud, puesto que se puede utilizar directamente para la interpretación clínica de las enfermedades endócrinas, el estado de crecimiento y la calidad de vida. Objetivo: Validar la técnica propuesta por Mirwald et.al (2002) para valorar la maduración y desarrollar una ecuación transversal para calcular el Pico de velocidad de Crecimiento de niños y adolescentes de escuelas públicas de la región urbana de Campinas, SP, Brasil. Material y métodos: Fueron seleccionados de forma probabilística estratificada 914 chicos y 839 chicas, los que corresponden al 30% de un total de 5931 escolares de 8-16 años de ambos sexos de una región urbana de Campinas, SP, Brasil. Se evaluó la edad decimal y las variables antropométricas de peso, estatura y estatura sentada. Se realizaron las interrelaciones peso/estatura y se determinó la longitud de los miembros inferiores calculando la diferencia entre la estatura sentada y la estatura. Para validar la ecuación criterio (Mirwald et.al 2002) se utilizó la validación cruzada tanto interna y externa. Resultados: Se observó altas correlaciones entre la edad y las variables antropométricas, tanto en chicos (r=0,56-0,96), como en chicas (r=0,57-0,98). En la validación interna y externa no hubo diferencias significativas (p>0,05) y se verificó aceptable concordancia entre el criterio y las ecuaciones desarrolladas para los chicos de ambos sexos a un CI 95%. Conclusiones: Se concluye que las ecuaciones de regresión de Mirwald. et.al (2002) son validadas y pueden ser aplicadas a escolares de la región urbana de Campinas, SP (Brasil). Las ecuaciones desarrolladas en el estudio son una alternativa para evaluar la maduración somática de forma transversal (AU)

Introduction: The assessment of biological maturation is considered essential to health, because it can be used directly for the clinical interpretation of endocrine, growth status and quality of life. Objective: To validate the proposed technique by Mirwald et al (2002) to assess the maturity and develop an equation to calculate the cross peak growth rate of children and adolescents from public schools in the urban region of Campinas, SP, Brazil. Methods: We selected 914 stratified probability so boys and 839 girls, which correspond to 30% of a total of 5931 school children 8-16 years of both sexes of an urban region of Campinas, SP, Brazil. We evaluated the decimal age and anthropometric variables of height, weight and sitting height. Interrelationships were conducted weight / height and length was determined by calculating the lower the difference between the sitting height and stature. To validate the equation criterion (Mirwald et.al 2002) cross-validation was used both internally and externally. Results: We observed high correlations between age and anthropometric variables in both boys (r = 0.56 to 0.96) and in girls (r = 0.57 to 0.98). The internal and external validation no significant difference (p> 0.05) and acceptable agreement was observed between the test and the equations developed for children of both sexes to a 95% CI. Conclusions: We conclude that Mirwald et al (2002) regression equations are validated and can be applied to schools in the urban region of Campinas, SP (Brazil). The equations developed in the study are an alternative to assess somatic maturation across (AU)

Developmental trajectories of physical and indirect aggression from late childhood to adolescence: sex differences and outcomes in emerging adulthood.

OBJECTIVE: Two common subtypes of aggression (physical and indirect) have been shown to develop concurrently throughout childhood and to uniquely predict maladjustment. However, nothing is known about psychiatric outcomes of joint trajectories of physical aggression (PA) and indirect aggression (IA) in emerging adulthood. METHOD: Trajectories of PA and IA across ages 10 to 15 were modeled using 2,338 youth drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Children and Youth. The identified trajectories were then used to predict delinquency problems, depressive symptoms, and emotional intelligence in emerging adulthood. RESULTS: Three groups of children with distinct developmental trajectories of PA (no PA, 32.5%; moderate-declining PA 52.2%; and high-increasing PA, 15.3%) and three distinct developmental trajectories of IA (low-declining IA, 29.9%; moderate-declining IA, 65.5%; and high IA, 4.6%) were identified. Joint trajectories indicate that the largest group of children (41.6%) followed a moderate-declining IA trajectory and moderate-declining PA trajectory. Virtually no children were high on one type and low on the other. The proportion of boys was higher in the low IA-moderate declining PA and moderate IA-high increasing PA groups, whereas girls were more likely to be in the low IA-low PA and moderate IA-low PA groups. Individuals who followed elevated trajectories of IA and PA had significantly more depressive and delinquency symptoms and lower emotional quotient scores in emerging adulthood compared with those with lower trajectories. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that some children have high PA and IA trajectories from childhood to adolescence and that these trajectories are associated with an increased risk for maladjustment.

Early and late perceived pubertal timing as risk factors for anxiety disorders in adult women.

Anxiety disorders generally have an early age of onset and can contribute to the development of comorbid disorders later in life. Thus, it is important to identify adolescent risk factors for anxiety. Past research has identified early pubertal timing as a risk factor for anxiety, typically measured as a general construct through self-report. The current study used data from the National Comorbidity Survey-Replication (NCS-R) to examine recollection of early and late menarche as a predictor of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), specific phobias (SP), social anxiety disorder (SAD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), and panic disorder (PD) among women. Findings showed that early timing predicted increased risk of a lifetime diagnosis of PTSD, SP, and SAD, whereas late pubertal timing only predicted increased rates of SAD. Examination of race as a potential moderator of these relationships did not yield significant findings, but these analyses were limited by low power. Other limitations and future directions are discussed.

Effect of Tanner stage on proprioception accuracy.

UNLABELLED: The aim of this study was to compare the proprioceptive accuracy in the dominant and nondominant lower extremities between early and late stages of adolescence in boys. Participants displaying sexual development consistent with Tanner stages I or II were included in the early adolescent group, and those displaying development consistent with Tanner Stages IV or V were included in the late adolescent group. Proprioception was evaluated using the following 4 tests: one-leg-standing test, a single-limb-hopping test, an active angle-reproduction test, and a passive angle-reproduction test. There were statistically significant differences between the early and late stages of adolescence in nondominant ankles with regard to this single-limb-standing test. There were no statistically significant differences between the early and late adolescent stages, and between dominant and nondominant extremities with regard to the single-limb-hopping test. There were no statistically significant differences between early and late adolescent stages with regard to passive and active ankle plantar- and dorsiflexion position reproduction. Based on these findings, we concluded that sexual maturation categorized by Tanner stage does not affect proprioceptive ability in adolescent individuals. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: This method, as a clinical assessment of detecting deficits in neuromuscular control examined by foot and ankle surgeons and a rehabilitation technique to treat functional instability of the ankle used by physical therapists, might be applied to adolescents. Therefore, clinicians may obtain reliable information from the functional test battery during the assessment of ankle joint performance in adolescents.

Promoting equal developmental opportunity and outcomes among America's children and youth: results from the National Promises Study.

Building on a developmental framework positing five types of assets or inputs needed for children's development, referred to as promises, we investigated the extent to which American children and youth experience the five Promises articulated by the America's Promise Alliance. These are: (1) Caring Adults, (2) Safe Places and Constructive Use of Time, (3) A Healthy Start, (4) Effective Education, and (5) Opportunities to Make a Difference. Data came from a nationally representative poll designed to assess these five resources and involved more than 4,000 teenagers and their parents. Results showed that only a minority of young people experienced rich developmental nourishment (having 4-5 of the Promises). Males, older adolescents, adolescents of color, and adolescents from families with less education and lower parental annual incomes were significantly less likely to experience sufficient developmental opportunities and were also less likely to experience desirable developmental outcomes. However, among those young people who reported experiencing 4-5 Promises, the great majority of demographic differences in developmental outcomes were either eliminated or significantly reduced. The results suggest that increasing children's experience of these Promises would reduce developmental inequalities among America's young people. EDITORS' STRATEGIC IMPLICATIONS: Longitudinal studies with representative samples will be necessary to further validate this approach and study causal contributions of assets, but this integration of Positive Youth Development frameworks holds great promise for theory, practice, and policy.