Infectious optic neuropathy (ION), how to recognise it and manage it.

Optic neuropathy can be of infectious or non-infectious/idiopathic aetiology. Many infectious organisms can cause optic neuropathy that can be of varied presentation including papillitis, retrobulbar optic neuritis, neuroretinitis, and optic perineuritis. Detailed history, ocular, systemic/neurologic examination along with appropriate laboratory evaluation can help clinicians to identify the infectious agent causing optic neuropathy. In spite of recent advanced techniques in serological testing and molecular diagnostics like polymerase chain reaction (PCR), the identification of these pathogens is still a diagnostic challenge. It is ideal to have an infectious disease (ID) consultant in the management team, as most of these infections are multisystem involving diseases. Most infectious agents can be effectively treated with specific antibiotics, with or without corticosteroid therapy, but visual recovery is highly variable and depends entirely on early diagnosis of the causative agent. This review article will provide an overview of common pathogens involved in ION and will describe their management paradigms.

CT and MRI Findings of Invasive Mucormycosis in the Setting of COVID-19: Experience From a Single Center in India.

An increasing incidence of rhinoorbitocerebral mucormycosis (ROCM) among patients with COVID-19 has recently been reported in India. We report the imaging findings for 25 patients with COVID-19 and invasive ROCM at a single hospital in India. Findings included sinus wall erosions (n = 20), air within bony sinus structures (n = 11), and focal mucosal nonenhancement (n = 8). Orbital, vascular, and intracranial complications were also observed. Radiologists should recognize the increasing incidence of ROCM among patients with COVID-19 to facilitate early diagnosis.

Predictors of surgical intervention and visual outcome in bacterial orbital cellulitis.

ABSTRACT: This study aims to identify predictive factors associated with surgical intervention and the visual outcome of orbital cellulitis and to evaluate the treatment outcomes.A retrospective study involving 66 patients (68 eyes; 64 unilateral and 2 bilateral) diagnosed with bacterial orbital cellulitis was conducted between November 2005 and May 2019.The mean (± standard deviation) age was 42.1 (± 25.8) years (range: 15 days-86 years). Sinusitis was the most frequent predisposing factor, occurring in 25 patients (37.9%), followed by skin infection in 10 patients (15.2%), and acute dacryocystitis in 9 patients (13.6%). Subperiosteal abscesses were found in 24 eyes and orbital abscesses in 19 eyes. Surgical drainage was performed in 31 eyes. Regarding the abscess volume for surgical drainage, a cut-off of 1514 mm3 showed 71% sensitivity and 80% specificity. There was significant improvement in visual acuity (VA) and decrease in proptosis after treatment (for both, P ≤ .001). Only pre-treatment VA ≤20/200 was a significant predictor for post-treatment VA of 20/50 or worse (adjusted odds ratio: 12.0, P = .003). The presence of a relative afferent pupillary defect was the main predictor of post-treatment VA of 20/200 or worse (adjusted odds ratio: 19.0, P = .003).The most common predisposing factor for orbital cellulitis in this study was sinusitis. VA and proptosis significantly improved after treatment. We found that the abscess volume was strongly predictive of surgical intervention. Pre-treatment poor VA and the presence of relative afferent pupillary defect can predict the worst visual outcome. Hence, early detection of optic nerve dysfunction and prompt treatment could improve the visual prognosis.

CAT SCRATCH DISEASE IMITATING A TOXOCARA GRANULOMA OF THE OPTIC DISK.

PURPOSE: The study reports an unusual presentation of a young female patient presenting with a granulomatous posterior pole mass and profound vision loss secondary to infection with Bartonella henselae. METHODS: A single case report in a child. RESULTS: An 8-year-old female presented with a recent history of flu-like illness associated with profound vision loss, panuveitis and leukocoria in the left eye. She was found to have a posterior granulomatous mass associated with an exudative retinal detachment presumed as a toxocara granuloma. Magnetic Resonance Imaging ruled out retinoblastoma. Lab work done was negative for toxocariasis and positive for Bartonella henselae titers. She was treated for Cat Scratch Disease (CSD) with steroids and azithromycin. With treatment, the inflammation and exudative retinal detachment resolved, however, the patient had no improvement in visual acuity. CONCLUSIONS: Young patients presenting with leukocoria need a full work up, which includes ruling out retinoblastoma. CSD can present as a granulomatous mass similar to toxocariasis, which can rarely lead to debilitating and irreversible vision loss.

Optic neuropathy secondary to syphilis in an HIV negative patient.

Ocular syphilis is a resurgent clinical condition due to unsafe sexual practices. It has been reported in both immunocompromised and immunocompetent patients, but in HIV positive patients, it is more likely to exhibit a more aggressive course and adopt atypical clinical patterns such as optic nerve involvement. Herein we report an atypical case of optic neuritis secondary to syphilis in an HIV negative patient. This case highlights the importance of considering syphilis in the differential diagnosis of ocular inflammation and of obtaining HIV serology, since both diseases share common risk factors.

A challenging differential diagnosis of optic neuropathy in ED: CSD.

Optic neuropathy due to cat scratch disease (CSD) is a rare occurrence associated with macular star formation and is characterised by sudden mostly unilateral painless loss of vision. The aetiological agent in CSD is Bartonella henselae. Ocular complications present in up to 10% of patients and include neuroretinitis, conjunctivitis or uveitis. Ocular bartonelosis is usually self-limited. A case of a man patient with neuroretinitis caused by B. henselae is reported.

Bilateral optic neuropathy associated with cryptococcal meningitis in an immunocompetent patient.

Cryptococcal meningitis is associated with significant morbidity and is rare among immunocompetent patients. Clinical presentation as well as the course of disease is usually indolent which may delay the diagnosis. We present the case of a 52-year-old woman admitted with headaches, vomiting and fatigue for 3 weeks. She was diagnosed with cryptococcal meningitis and treated with antifungal therapy. She was referred for ophthalmological examination presenting with decreased vision in the left eye (OS; count fingers), left relative afferent pupillary defect and bilateral sixth nerve palsy. Funduscopy revealed florid bilateral papilloedema. Cranial MRI showed indirect signs of intracranial hypertension as well as multiple parenchymal lesions and optic nerve sheath enhancement after contrast administration. A ventriculoperitoneal shunt was placed. In spite of the control of intracranial pressure there was a decrease in vision in the right eye (OD) and deterioration of visual fields. Intravenous methylprednisolone was used to reverse optic neuropathy and to prevent OD visual loss.

Chiasmitis caused by Mycobacterium haemophilum in an immunocompromised adult.

We report a case of chiasmitis caused by a rare nontuberculous mycobacterium in an immunocompromised patient. A 44-year-old man with a history of AIDS presented with recurrent vision loss and headache. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) demonstrated an enhancing mass involving the optic chiasm. Histopathologic and microbiological evaluation revealed infection with Mycobacterium haemophilum. While combination antimicrobial and steroid therapy contributed to improvement in his vision, the patient's symptoms recurred. Follow-up MRI showed extension of infection to the hypothalamus and leptomeninges, indicative of basilar meningitis. MRI is a valuable tool for early diagnosis of chiasmitis as well as for monitoring infection progression and treatment response.

Fungal ball within Onodi cell mucocele causing visual loss.

The Onodi cell is a pneumatized posterior ethmoid cell located laterally and superiorly to the sphenoid sinus and closely related to the optic nerve. A mucocele is a benign, expansile, cystlike lesion of the paranasal sinuses that is filled with mucoid secretion. Therefore, optic neuropathy caused by an infected mucocele in an Onodi cell is uncommon. Furthermore, fungal infection superimposed on an Onodi cell mucocele is extremely rare and has not been reported previously. Here, we describe the first case of fungal ball within Onodi cell mucocele causing visual loss, which was completely removed via transnasal endoscopic approach.

An abscess causing a delayed optic neuropathy after decompression for thyroid eye disease.

A 63-year-old female with Graves' disease and chronic sinusitis presented with acute left orbital pain and proptosis five years after bilateral orbital decompression and sinus surgery. Imaging revealed bilateral frontal sinus opacification, frontoethmoidal mucoceles and left subperiosteal mass. Presence of an optic neuropathy drove emergent management with intravenous antibiotics and orbitotomy with exploration. Intra-operatively, a left orbital abscess and left frontal sinus purulence were drained. The patient regained her vision with relief of proptosis and pain.

Mucormycosis in a patient with AIDS receiving systemic steroids.

Mucormycosis is an opportunistic fungal infection with a high mortality rate. Although mucormycosis is relatively rare, recent studies suggest that the incidence is on the rise as a result of increased use of chemotherapy and steroids. The authors present an unusual case of invasive mucormycosis in a hospitalized patient with AIDS who was receiving short-term, high-dose steroids and who had associated steroid-induced diabetes. The patient was otherwise healthy, with no underlying risk factors such as neutropenia or intravenous drug use. The patient developed acute onset of proptosis, vision loss, and invasive Mucor in the left maxillary sinus that extended along the optic nerve intracranially. Despite aggressive treatment, the patient died. Physicians should be aware of steroid-induced diabetes as a risk factor for invasive fungal infections such as mucormycosis.

Macular hole: a rare complication of ocular bartonellosis.

A 37-year-old woman presented with an anterior optic neuropathy related to Bartonella henselae. Twenty-nine days after symptom onset, a partial thickness macular hole developed in the involved eye. Fundus photography and optical coherence tomography confirmed the conversion to a full-thickness macular hole in 2 months. Macular hole as a complication of cat scratch disease is a rare entity, with 2 prior reported cases in children. The development of a macular hole following cat scratch disease can appear without the clinical picture of multiple white chorioretinal lesions, macular star, or vitritis.

Clinical characteristics in 53 patients with cat scratch optic neuropathy.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical manifestations and to identify risk factors associated with visual outcome in a large cohort of patients with cat scratch optic neuropathy (CSON). DESIGN: Multicenter, retrospective chart review. PARTICIPANTS: Fifty-three patients (62 eyes) with serologically positive CSON from 5 academic neuro-ophthalmology services evaluated over an 11-year period. METHODS: Institutional review board/ethics committee approval was obtained. Data from medical record charts were collected to detail the clinical manifestations and to analyze visual outcome metrics. Generalized estimating equations and logistic regression analysis were used in the statistical analysis. Six patients (9 eyes) were excluded from visual outcome statistical analysis because of a lack of follow-up. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Demographic information, symptoms at presentation, clinical characteristics, length of follow-up, treatment used, and visual acuity (at presentation and final follow-up). RESULTS: Mean patient age was 27.8 years (range, 8-65 years). Mean follow-up time was 170.8 days (range, 1-1482 days). Simultaneous bilateral involvement occurred in 9 (17%) of 53 patients. Visual acuity on presentation ranged from 20/20 to counting fingers (mean, 20/160). Sixty-eight percent of eyes retained a visual acuity of 20/40 or better at final follow-up (defined as favorable visual outcome). Sixty-seven percent of patients endorsed a history of cat or kitten scratch. Neuroretinitis (macular star) developed in 28 eyes (45%). Only 5 patients had significant visual complications (branch retinal artery occlusion, macular hole, and corneal decompensation). Neither patient age nor any other factor except good initial visual acuity and absence of systemic symptoms was associated with a favorable visual outcome. There was no association between visual acuity at final follow-up and systemic antibiotic or steroid use. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with CSON have a good overall visual prognosis. Good visual acuity at presentation was associated with a favorable visual outcome. The absence of a macular star does not exclude the possibility of CSON. FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S): The author(s) have no proprietary or commercial interest in any materials discussed in this article.

Postinfectious optic neuropathy in endemic typhus.

Endemic typhus (Rickettsia typhi), also known as murine typhus, is a flea-borne bacterial disease rarely found in most of the developed world. Known ocular manifestations linked to endemic typhus include mild vitritis, retinal lesions, and retinal vascular leakage. Optic neuropathy, however, is rarely associated with R. typhi, and postinfectious optic neuropathy is even less common. To highlight this unusual complication, we report a patient who developed postinfectious optic neuropathy a few weeks after he was successfully treated for endemic typhus.

Combined optic neuropathy and central retinal artery occlusion in presumed ocular tuberculosis without detectable systemic infection.

PURPOSE: To report a rare case of combined optic neuropathy and central retinal artery occlusion in presumed ocular tuberculosis without systemic infection. CASE REPORT: A young man presented with sudden onset of decreased vision in his left eye with combined optic disc swelling and central retinal artery occlusion in a background of vasculitic changes of the same eye. There were no signs or symptoms of active systemic tuberculosis infection. Chest X-ray and computed tomography thorax findings were normal and sputum cultures for tuberculosis were negative. The Mantoux and QuantiFERON-TB Gold tests were strongly positive. No tuberculosis polymerase chain reaction testing was done. Anti-tuberculosis therapy was initiated, based on the strong clinical evidence. CONCLUSION: The ocular findings improved remarkably with the anti-tuberculosis treatment, although the left eye vision remained poor. A high index of suspicion is required to diagnose ocular tuberculosis when all other systemic investigations are negative, especially in this part of the world where tuberculosis is endemic.