Mechanistic insights into targeting caspase-3 activation and alveolar macrophage pyroptosis by Ephedra and bitter almond compounds for treating pediatric pneumonia via network pharmacology and bioinformatics.

This study investigates the molecular mechanism of Ma Huang-Ku Xing Ren, a traditional Chinese medicine formula, in treating pediatric pneumonia. The focus is on the regulation of caspase-3 activation and reduction of alveolar macrophage necrosis through network pharmacology and bioinformatics analyses of Ephedra and bitter almond components. Active compounds and targets from ephedrine and bitter almond were obtained using TCMSP, TCMID, and GeneCards databases, identifying pediatric pneumonia-related genes. A protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed, and core targets were screened. GO and KEGG pathway enrichment analyses identified relevant genes and pathways. An acute pneumonia mouse model was created using the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) inhalation method, with caspase-3 overexpression induced by a lentivirus. The mice were treated with Ephedra and bitter almond through gastric lavage. Lung tissue damage, inflammatory markers (IL-18 and IL-1ß), and cell death-related gene activation were assessed through H&E staining, ELISA, western blot, flow cytometry, and immunofluorescence. The study identified 128 active compounds and 121 gene targets from Ephedra and bitter almond. The PPI network revealed 13 core proteins, and pathway analysis indicated involvement in inflammation, apoptosis, and cell necrosis, particularly the caspase-3 pathway. In vivo results showed that Ephedra and bitter almond treatment significantly mitigated LPS-induced lung injury in mice, reducing lung injury scores and inflammatory marker levels. It also decreased caspase-3 activity and cell death in alveolar macrophages. In conclusion, the active ingredients of Ma Huang-Ku Xing Ren, particularly targeting caspase-3, may effectively treat pediatric pneumonia by reducing apoptosis in alveolar macrophages, as demonstrated by both network pharmacology, bioinformatics analyses, and experimental data.

Comparison of Non-ephedrine Constituents from Ephedra Plants Cultivated in Japan.

Ephedra plants, the main components of which are ephedrine alkaloids, are used as traditional medicines in Eastern Asian countries. In this study, we isolated non-ephedrine constituents from various Ephedra plant species cultivated in Japan. HPLC analysis suggested that kynurenic acid and its derivatives accumulated in a wide range of Ephedra plant species. Furthermore, a large amount of (2R,3S)-O-benzoyl isocitrate has been isolated from E. intermedia. This study suggests that Ephedra plants have diverse non-ephedrine constituents.

Ephedra intermedia Schrenk & C. A. Mey Methanol Extract: Nanoencapsulation by Mini-Emulsion Polymerization and its Release Trend under Simulated Conditions of the Human Body.

In this research, the extract of Ephedra intermedia Schrenk & C.A.Mey. was encapsulated using the mini-emulsion polymerization method based on methyl methacrylate polymers with a nanometer size. The encapsulated extract was characterized using different analytical techniques. Furthermore, the loading efficiency and release of the plant extract were examined. FT-IR spectroscopy confirmed the formation of an expectational product. The TEM and SEM imaging showed a spherical morphology for the prepared encapsulated extract. The average size of poly-methyl-methacrylate nanoparticles containing Ephedra extract was found to be approximately 47 nm. The extract loading efficiency and encapsulation efficiency test demonstrated a dose-depending behavior on E. intermedia extract for both analyses, which is highly advantageous for traversing biological barriers. The release assay shows a controlled release for the extract at phosphate buffer solution (PBS). A 38 % release was calculated after 36 hours. The results obtained from the present study reveal that encapsulating the plant extract is a suitable alternative to control and increase their medicinal properties.

Modelling the amount of inputs needed for methamphetamine manufacture in Afghanistan.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The use and manufacture of methamphetamine has increased in Afghanistan in recent years. Recent research and reports have pointed to the ephedra plant, which grows wildly, as a key source of ephedrine used in the manufacture of methamphetamine. This paper aimed to estimate the relative efficiencies and scale of inputs required to manufacture methamphetamine in Afghanistan. METHODS: Monte Carlo simulations model of the amount of ephedra or cold medications needed to render a pure kilogram of methamphetamine in Afghanistan, accounting for uncertainty in ranges of key parameters informed from the literature and elsewhere. Final estimates were extrapolated to recent seizure totals. RESULTS: For dried ephedra, the median estimate is 196.8 kg (25th-75th percentiles 119.3-346.6 kg) needed to produce 1 kg of methamphetamine compared with 27.9 kg (25th-75th percentiles 21.9-36.8 kg) for cold medications. Nearly 2.7 t of methamphetamine were seized in Afghanistan in 2021. Assuming a purity range of 50%-90%, some 266-478 t of dried ephedra or 38-68 t of cold medication would need to have been processed. CONCLUSION: Simulated estimates show that considerable amounts of either ephedra or cold medication are needed to produce 1 kg of methamphetamine in Afghanistan. This raises questions about the plausibility of ephedra as the dominant source of Afghanistan's methamphetamine.

Ethnobotanical Uses and Pharmacological Activities of Moroccan Ephedra Species.

Ephedra species are among the most popular herbs used in traditional medicine for a long time. The ancient Chinese medical book "Treatise on Febrile Diseases" refers to the classic traditional Chinese medicine prescription Ge Gen decoction, which consists of seven herbs, including an Ephedra species. Ephedra species are utilized all over the world to treat symptoms of the common cold and coughs, and to combat major human diseases, such as asthma, cancers, diabetes, cardiovascular and digestive disorders, and microbial infections. This study aimed at identifying specific Ephedra species used traditionally in Morocco for therapeutic purposes. The plant parts, their preparation process, and the treated pathologies were identified and analyzed. The results revealed five ethnobotanically important species of Ephedra: Ephedra alata Decne, Ephedra altissima Desf., Ephedra distachya L., Ephedra fragilis Desf., and Ephedra nebrodensis Tineo. These species are used traditionally in Morocco for treating people with diabetes, cancer, rheumatism, cold and asthma, hypertension, influenza virus infection, and respiratory ailments. In addition, they are occasionally used as calefacient agents, to regulate weight, or for capillary care. Few studies have underlined the antibacterial and antioxidant activities of some of these Moroccan Ephedra species, but little information is available regarding the natural products at the origin of the bioactivities. Further phytochemical investigations and clinical data are encouraged to better support the use of these plants.

Flavonoids and phenols from the stems of Ephedra equisetina.

Twelve undescribed compounds, including five flavonoids and seven phenols, were isolated from the stems of Ephedra equisetina Bunge. Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic methods, including NMR spectroscopy and HRESIMS analysis. Their absolute configurations were elucidated by comparing their experimental and calculated ECD spectra. In the in vitro bioactive assay, all compounds were tested for their anti-asthmatic activities by releasing ß-Hex in C48/80-induced RBL-2H3 cells. The ß-Hex release rates of compounds 3, 8, 10, and 11 were 0.8502 ± 0.0231, 0.8802 ± 0.0805, 0.7850 ± 0.0593, and 0.8361 ± 0.0728, respectively, suggesting that compounds 3, 8, 10, and 11 have potential anti-asthmatic activities.

Six New Compounds from the Herbaceous Stems of Ephedra intermedia Schrenket C. A. Meyer and Their Lung-Protective Activity.

Six new compounds, (7R,8S,8'R)-balanophorone (1), (7'S,8'R,8R)-yunnanensin A (2), (3S)-thunberginol C (3), (8R,8'R)-maninsigin B (4), (7S,8R)-4,7,8-dihydroxy-9,9-dimethyl-chroman (5), and 4-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)butan-1-one (6), along with eight known compounds (7-14), were isolated from the herbaceous stems of Ephedra intermedia Schrenket C. A. Meyer. Their structures were elucidated based on their spectroscopic (MS, NMR, IR, and UV) data, and their absolute configurations were determined by comparing their calculated and experimental electronic circular dichroic (ECD) spectra. Moreover, compounds 1 and 3-6 were evaluated for their ability to protect human pulmonary epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) from injury induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in vitro. The results showed that compound 6 exhibited a significant protective effect against LPS-induced injury in BEAS-2B, and compound 5 exhibited a slightly protective effect at the concentration of 10 µM.

In vitro anti-severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 effect of Ephedra przewalskii Stapf extract.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The terrestrial stems of Ephedra (Ephedra spp.; including Ephedra sinica Stapf and Ephedra przewalskii Stapf) extracts are used in traditional medicines in East Asia. In Japan, the Kampo formula containing E. sinica extract is prescribed for the treatment of the common cold, influenza virus infections, and mild symptoms of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Although ephedrine alkaloids in E. sinica exert antitussive effects, they may have side effects associated with the sympathetic nervous system. E. przewalskii extract, a drug used in traditional Uyghur and Mongolian medicine, is considered to be free of ephedrine alkaloids and is a promising candidate for the treatment of infectious diseases. However, its use is currently limited because evidence of its antiviral efficacy remains inconclusive. AIM OF THE STUDY: We compared the anti-severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) effects of E. przewalskii and E. sinica extracts in vitro. Additionally, we examined the differences in their antiviral effects against different SARS-CoV-2 strains. MATERIALS AND METHODS: VeroE6/TMPRSS2 cells were infected with SARS-CoV-2 (Conventional, Delta, and Omicron strains-BA.1, BA.2, BA.4, and BA.5), and lysates prepared from each herbal extract were added. The infectious titer was determined using the 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50) method; in turn, the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) was calculated for each extract to compare the antiviral efficacy of E. sinica and E. przewalskii extracts. Further, the extracts were compared with remdesivir for their antiviral efficacy against the conventional viral strain. To verify the effect of the inactivation of virus particles, these extracts were added to each SARS-CoV-2 strain, and the infectious titers were determined using the TCID50 method. RESULTS: The antiviral efficacy (i.e., IC50) of the E. przewalskii extract against each SARS-CoV-2 strain was 2.7-10.8-fold greater than that of the E. sinica extract. The antiviral efficacy of the E. przewalskii extract against conventional viral strains was compared with that of remdesivir, which was 1/27.6 of remdesivir's efficacy. The E. sinica extract showed minimal inactivation of virus particles of each strain, whereas the E. przewalskii extract resulted in substantial viral inactivation. CONCLUSIONS: The E. przewalskii extract showed higher antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 than the E. sinica extract. Overall, our study suggests that E. przewalskii extract can be used for the treatment of viral infections, including COVID-19.

Diploid species phylogeny and evolutionary reticulation indicate early radiation of Ephedra in the Tethys coast.

Reconstructing a robust species phylogeny and disentangling the evolutionary and biogeographic history of the gymnosperm genus Ephedra, which has a large genome and rich polyploids, remain a big challenge. Here we reconstructed a transcriptome-based phylogeny of 19 diploid Ephedra species, and explored evolutionary reticulations in this genus represented by 50 diploid and polyploid species, using four low-copy nuclear and nine plastid genes. The diploid species phylogeny indicates that the Mediterranean species diverged first, and the remaining species split into three clades, including the American species (Clade A), E. rhytidosperma, and all other Asian species (Clade B). The single-gene trees placed E. rhytidosperma sister to Clade A, Clade B, or Clades A + B in similar proportions, suggesting that radiation and gene flow likely occurred in the early evolution of Ephedra. In addition, reticulate evolution occurred not only among the deep nodes, but also in the recently evolved South American species, which further caused difficulty in phylogenetic reconstruction. Moreover, we found that allopolyploid speciation was pervasive in Ephedra. Our study also suggests that Ephedra very likely originated in the Tethys coast during the late Cretaceous, and the South American Ephedra species have a single origin by dispersal from Mexico or North America.

Alanda (Ephedra foeminea) nanoparticles as a modulator of genomic DNA degradation in mice: new inspiration for treating Ehrlich solid tumour-induced kidney and liver toxicity.

OBJECTIVE: The limitations faced by conventional drug delivery systems are being overcome through the use of rapidly evolving cancer nanotherapeutics. Determining the manner in which the Ehrlich solid tumor (EST) is impacted by the new bioactive Alanda-loaded flax seed gum nanoparticles (Alanda NPs) functioning as an anti-carcinogenic agent represents the research objective of this paper. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Identification of the functional groups, surface morphology, particle size, and zeta potential were among the characterizations and preparations made for the prepared nanoparticles. A Control group, a Flax Seed Gum group, a raw Alanda group, an Alanda NPs group, an EST group, and an induced EST treated with Alanda NPs group comprised the six groups respectively which the 60 female mice were separated into in this in vivo study. RESULTS: Toxicity assessments for kidneys and liver were performed alongside the detection of total genomic DNA degradation. The zeta potential and the particle sizes for Alanda NPs were -25.60±0.38 mv and 40±0.28 nm, respectively, where the latter demonstrated a monodisperse spherical shape, per the findings. The use of Alanda NPs to treat EST was found to alle te the DNA damage, apoptosis, and renal and hepatic toxicity that EST induces. Additionally, the activation of oxidative stress and apoptosis causing the renal and hepatic toxicity induced by EST is counteracted by the scavenging of free radicals by the Alanda NPs. CONCLUSIONS: A high degree of safety for effective cancer treatment was displayed by the newly developed oral nanoparticles while also demonstrating strong potential in vivo.

Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine in Ephedra saxatilis on the vertical altitude gradient changed in southern Tibet Plateau, China.

Ephedra is one of the world's most important plants, used in medicine, plants and ecology. Most Ephedra grows in plain areas and is stable. But the plateau environment is special, with the change of altitude, the variety difference of plateau Ephedra saxatilis is very obvious. E. saxatilis metabolism on the Tibetan Plateau is not only affected by altitude, but also environmental conditions such as climate conditions and different soil components. However, the change mechanism of E. saxatilis alkaloids in special ecological environment is still unclear. Therefore, we analyzed the metabolic and altitude of E. saxatilis species in the Tibetan Plateau. Through the functional analysis of Kyoto Metabolism and Metabolomic Encyclopedia (KEGG), we can determine that the number of E. saxatilis metabolites decreases with the increase of altitude, and there are differences in metabolism among the three mountains. This was confirmed by univariate analysis of the top five metabolic pathways. Based on the analysis of soil and metabolomics, it was found that soil water content was also a factor affecting E. saxatilis metabolism. According to the difference of vertical height gradient, ephedrine and pseudephedrine showed the same change in vertical altitude under different mountains. Ephedrine increased as the altitude gradient increased, and pseudoephedrine decreased as the altitude gradient decreased. Our results provide valuable information for further study of metabolic mechanism and efficacy stability. It provides useful reference for the research of E. saxatilis planting in special area.

A Modified 1H-NMR Quantification Method of Ephedrine Alkaloids in Ephedrae Herba Samples.

A previous 1H-NMR method allowed the quantification of ephedrine alkaloids; however, there were some disadvantages. The cyclized derivatives resulted from the impurities of diethyl ether were identified and benzene was selected as the better extraction solvent. The locations of ephedrine alkaloids were confirmed with 2D NMR. Therefore, a specific 1H-NMR method has been modified for the quantification of ephedrine alkaloids. Accordingly, twenty Ephedrae Herba samples could be classified into three classes: (I) E. sinica-like species; (II) E. intermedia-like species; (III) others (lower alkaloid contents). The results indicated that ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are the major alkaloids in Ephedra plants, but the concentrations vary greatly determined by the plant species and the collection locations.

Inhibitory effect of Ephedra herba on human norovirus infection in human intestinal organoids.

Human norovirus (HuNoV) is a major cause of acute gastroenteritis and foodborne diseases worldwide with public health concern, yet no antiviral therapies have been developed. In this study, we aimed to screen crude drugs, which are components of Japanese traditional medicine, ''Kampo'' to see their effects on HuNoV infection using a reproducible HuNoV cultivation system, stem-cell derived human intestinal organoids/enteroids (HIOs). Among the 22 crude drugs tested, Ephedra herba significantly inhibited HuNoV infection in HIOs. A time-of-drug addition experiment suggested that this crude drug more preferentially targets post-entry step than entry step for the inhibition. To our knowledge, this is the first anti-HuNoV inhibitor screen targeting crude drugs, and Ephedra herba was identified as a novel inhibitor candidate that merits further study.

Predicting the comprehensive geospatial pattern of two ephedrine-type alkaloids for Ephedra sinica in Inner Mongolia.

Ephedra sinica Stapf. is a shrubby plant widely used in traditional Chinese medicine due to its high level of medicinal value, thus, it is in high demand. Ephedrine (E) and pseudoephedrine (PE) are key medicinal components and quality indicators for E. sinica. These two ephedrine-type alkaloids are basic elements that exert the medicinal effect of E. sinica. Recently, indiscriminate destruction and grassland desertification have caused the quantity and quality of these pharmacological plants to degenerate. Predicting potentially suitable habitat for high-quality E. sinica is essential for its future conservation and domestication. In this study, MaxEnt software was utilized to map suitable habitats for E. sinica in Inner Mongolia based on occurrence data and a set of variables related to climate, soil, topography and human impact. The model parametrization was optimized by evaluating alternative combinations of feature classes and values of the regularization multiplier. Second, a geospatial quality model was fitted to relate E and PE contents to the same environmental variables and to predict their spatial patterns across the study area. Outputs from the two models were finally coupled to map areas predicted to have both suitable conditions for E. sinica and high alkaloid content. Our results indicate that E. sinica with high-quality E content was mainly distributed in the Horqin, Ulan Butong and Wulanchabu grasslands. E. sinica with high-quality PE content was primarily found in the Ordos, Wulanchabu and Ulan Butong grasslands. This study provides scientific information for the protection and sustainable utilization of E. sinica. It can also help to control and prevent desertification in Inner Mongolia.

Ecological and pharmacognostical characteristics in Ephedra saxatilis in the Yarlung Zangbo River Valley of southeastern Tibetan Plateau, China.

In the Yarlung Zangbo River Valley of the southeastern Tibetan Plateau, China (29°07'49.5"N, 92°41'11.0"E, 3256 m above sea level), we found an Ephedra saxatilis community in the xeric steppe with shrubland vegetation habitat of the broad alluvial plain of the river with soil having relatively higher water-soluble cation (Ca2+, 8.62; K+, 1.94; Mg2+, 2.38 mmol/100 g dry soil weight) and nitrogen (NO3-, 21.78; NH4+, 1.82 mmol/100 g dry soil weight) content. The ranges of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine in 13 E. saxatilis samples were as follows: ephedrine, not detected-3.03 of dry weight (%DW) and pseudoephedrine, not detected-1.36%DW. The 13 E. saxatilis plants collected in the study area showed intraspecific variability of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine with 6 samples containing ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, 6 samples containing only ephedrine, and 1 sample containing only pseudoephedrine.

Astragalicola ephedrae sp. nov., isolated from the stem of Ephedra gerardiana in Ladakh, India.

An endophytic fungus designated as EIT4T (MCC 9756T) was isolated from the asymptomatic stem tissue of Ephedra gerardiana collected from the Kargil district of Ladakh Union territory, India. Phylogenetic analysis based on concatenated nuclear ribosomal ITS (internal transcribed spacer) and LSU (large ribosomal subunit) sequence datasets revealed its placement within the genus Astragalicola. However, it formed a separate clade exhibiting strong bootstrap support value (80%). The highest nrITS sequence similarity between EIT4T and species of Astragalicola was 95.19% (A. vasilyevae) and 94.26% (A. amorpha), while nrLSU sequence similarity was 99.27% (A. amorpha). Morphologically, EIT4T differs from the other species of Astragalicola in having larger sub-globose to pyriform conidiomata, smaller and mostly unbranched conidiophores, and polymorphic translucent conidia with two terminal guttules. Based on combined cultural, micromorphological, molecular, and phylogenetic analyses, EIT4T represents a novel species in the genus Astragalicola proposed here as Astragalicola ephedrae sp. nov. Detailed description and illustrations of the novel species are provided. The type strain is EIT4T (= MCC 9756 T = MN29T).

Comparative pharmacokinetic studies of Ephedra herba in common cold and nephrotic syndrome rat models.

Ephedra herba is a conventional Chinese medicine to treat cold, fever, asthma, edema, and lung diseases in the clinic. At present, most pharmacokinetic studies focus on the pharmacokinetic process of alkaloids in normal animals. However, the non-alkaloid components are also active. In addition, the pharmacokinetic studies under pathological state make more sense for clarifying the material basis of efficacy. In this study, a sensitive and rapid ultra-high-performance-tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and applied to determine nine bioactive components (ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, methylephedrine, (+)-catechin, epicatechin, vitexin, vicenin-2, cinnamic acid, and ferulic acid) in normal, common cold and nephrotic syndrome rats after the oral administration of Ephedra herba. Compared to the normal group, except for ferulic acid, the exposure levels of the other eight components were significantly increased and the plasma clearance clearly declined in common cold rats. Similarly, the exposure levels of seven components other than cinnamic acid and ferulic acid were also significantly augmented and the plasma clearance decreased significantly in nephrotic syndrome rats. In brief, the pathological conditions of the common cold and nephrotic syndrome could lead to alterations in the pharmacokinetics profiles of the nine components, which provide a reference for further exploration of the pharmacodynamics basis of Ephedra herba.

Ephedrae herba: A comprehensive review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Ephedrae herba (called Mahuang in China) is the dried herbaceous stem of Ephedra sinica Stapf, Ephedra intermedia Schrenk et C. A. Mey., and Ephedra equisetina Bge. Ephedrae herba has a long history of use as an herb, and it was originally recorded in Sheng Nong's herbal classic. Ephedrae herba has also been widely used as both medicine and food. In the clinic, Ephedrae herba is commonly used for treating colds, bronchial asthma, nasal congestion, and other diseases. AIM OF REVIEW: This review aims to provide a systematic summary on the traditional use, chemical constituents, pharmacological effects, clinical applications, quality control, toxicology, and pharmacokinetics of Ephedrae herba to provide a theoretical basis for further reasonable development of Ephedrae herba in clinical practice and creation of new drugs. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Information on Ephedrae herba was gathered from various sources, including the scientific databases including CNKI, PubMed, SciFinder and ScienceDirect, classical books on traditional Chinese herbal medicine, Ph.D. and M.Sc. dissertations; Baidu Scholar; and from different professional websites. RESULTS: Ephedrae herba is distributed in regions of China and other areas. Ephedra and its compound preparations can be used for colds, bronchial asthma, nasal congestion and other diseases. Approximately 281 chemical constituents have been isolated from Ephedrae herba, including alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, polysaccharides, volatile oils, organic acids, and other compounds. Among these constituents, alkaloids and volatile oils are the most abundant and represent the major bioactive constituents. Ephedrae herba possesses multiple pharmacological activities, including diuretic effect, anti-allergic effect, blood pressure regulatory, anti-inflammatory effect, anti-oxidation effect and anti-viral effects. Ephedrine hydrochloride and pseudoephedrine hydrochloride are generally selected as indicators for the quantitative determination of Ephedrae herba. The maximum dosage of Ephedrae herba should not exceed 10 g. If overused, adverse reactions such as palpitations, sweating, irritability and insomnia will occur. CONCLUSIONS: Ephedrae herba is an ancient herbal medicine with a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities that has been used for thousands of years in China. It is one of the most commonly used herbal components of the TCM formulas. Hydrochloride and pseudoephedrine are the major bioactive constituents. However, there is a need to further understand the mechanisms of active components of Ephedrae herba. Future studies should perform an in-depth analyses of the pharmacokinetics and mechanisms of toxicity of Ephedrae herba. Quality standards should be developed to correspond to the various application methods to ensure the efficacy of drugs in actual treatment.

Evaluation of rooting characteristics of Ephedra cuttings by anatomy and promising strain selection based on rooting characteristics and alkaloid content.

The differences in rooting characteristics of cuttings prepared from E. sinica strains were investigated and found that cuttings prepared from strains with high rooting characteristics showed approximately 90% of the cuttings were rooted, whereas cuttings prepared from low rooting characteristics did not root. To understand the reason for this substantial difference, the anatomy of nodes was examined and found that adventitious roots were generated from the cortex and parenchyma in pith. Calculations of the correlation coefficients between the rooting rate and the value of anatomy indicated that the rooting rate was positively correlated with the parenchyma in pith in the node. On the basis of the positive correlation, it is possible to estimate the rooting characteristics of new strains without having to prepare cuttings. Next, we conducted a screening for E. sinica strains on the basis of total alkaloids content [ephedrine (E) + pseudoephedrine (PE)] and selected strains having no less than 0.7% total alkaloids content as defined by the Japanese Pharmacopoeia 18th edition. Strains having characteristic E or PE content were uncovered: E-rich strains had 100% E content and PE-rich strains had 99% PE content. We were able to select E. sinica strains on the basis of two factors: high rooting rate of cuttings and high or characteristic alkaloid content. These strains are valuable for breeding.

Ephedrae Herba: A Review of Its Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Clinical Application, and Alkaloid Toxicity.

Ephedrae Herba (Ephedra), known as "MaHuang" in China, is the dried straw stem that is associated with the lung and urinary bladder meridians. At present, more than 60 species of Ephedra plants have been identified, which contain more than 100 compounds, including alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, sugars, and organic phenolic acids. This herb has long been used to treat asthma, liver disease, skin disease, and other diseases, and has shown unique efficacy in the treatment of COVID-19 infection. Because alkaloids are the main components causing toxicity, the safety of Ephedra must be considered. However, the nonalkaloid components of Ephedra can be effectively used to replace ephedrine extracts to treat some diseases, and reasonable use can ensure the safety of Ephedra. We reviewed the phytochemistry, pharmacology, clinical application, and alkaloid toxicity of Ephedra, and describe prospects for its future development to facilitate the development of Ephedra.