Light regulates stomatal development by modulating paracrine signaling from inner tissues.

Developmental outcomes are shaped by the interplay between intrinsic and external factors. The production of stomata-essential pores for gas exchange in plants-is extremely plastic and offers an excellent system to study this interplay at the cell lineage level. For plants, light is a key external cue, and it promotes stomatal development and the accumulation of the master stomatal regulator SPEECHLESS (SPCH). However, how light signals are relayed to influence SPCH remains unknown. Here, we show that the light-regulated transcription factor ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL 5 (HY5), a critical regulator for photomorphogenic growth, is present in inner mesophyll cells and directly binds and activates STOMAGEN. STOMAGEN, the mesophyll-derived secreted peptide, in turn stabilizes SPCH in the epidermis, leading to enhanced stomatal production. Our work identifies a molecular link between light signaling and stomatal development that spans two tissue layers and highlights how an environmental signaling factor may coordinate growth across tissue types.

RCB initiates Arabidopsis thermomorphogenesis by stabilizing the thermoregulator PIF4 in the daytime.

Daytime warm temperature elicits thermomorphogenesis in Arabidopsis by stabilizing the central thermoregulator PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING transcription FACTOR 4 (PIF4), whose degradation is otherwise promoted by the photoreceptor and thermosensor phytochrome B. PIF4 stabilization in the light requires a transcriptional activator, HEMERA (HMR), and is abrogated when HMR's transactivation activity is impaired in hmr-22. Here, we report the identification of a hmr-22 suppressor mutant, rcb-101, which surprisingly carries an A275V mutation in REGULATOR OF CHLOROPLAST BIOGENESIS (RCB). rcb-101/hmr-22 restores thermoresponsive PIF4 accumulation and reverts the defects of hmr-22 in chloroplast biogenesis and photomorphogenesis. Strikingly, similar to hmr, the null rcb-10 mutant impedes PIF4 accumulation and thereby loses the warm-temperature response. rcb-101 rescues hmr-22 in an allele-specific manner. Consistently, RCB interacts directly with HMR. Together, these results unveil RCB as a novel temperature signaling component that functions collaboratively with HMR to initiate thermomorphogenesis by selectively stabilizing PIF4 in the daytime.

Effects of Ultraviolet Light Irradiation on Silk Fibroin Films Prepared under Different Conditions.

Silk fibroin (SF)-based materials are exposed to both natural and artificial ultraviolet (UV) light during preparation or administration. However, the effects of UV irradiation on SF films prepared under different conditions have not yet been described in detail. In this study, four SF films with different molecular weight (MW) distribution were fabricated using SF solutions, which were prepared by dissolving degummed SF for 0.5-24 h. We observed UV (365 nm) irradiation on SF films induced the increase of yellowness and absorbance at 310 nm of SF films, indicating the formation of new photo-products and di-tyrosine bonds by photo-oxidation. Due to di-tyrosine cross-links between SF chains, UV-irradiated SF films were not fully dissociated in urea solution. In addition to formation of new products, UV reduced the crystallinity of SF films by breaking hydrogen bonds of ß-sheet conformation. Unlike the UV-induced decomposition of physical interactions, UV did not affect the covalent bonds (i.e., peptide bonds). Through these experiments, we could expect that SF with higher MW was more susceptible and SF with lower MW was more resistant to UV-induced photo-oxidation and photo-degradation. These results provide useful information about UV-induced aging of SF-based materials under natural sunlight and UV irradiating conditions.

SIRT7-dependent deacetylation of NPM promotes p53 stabilization following UV-induced genotoxic stress.

Adaptation to different forms of environmental stress is crucial for maintaining essential cellular functions and survival. The nucleolus plays a decisive role as a signaling hub for coordinating cellular responses to various extrinsic and intrinsic cues. p53 levels are normally kept low in unstressed cells, mainly due to E3 ubiquitin ligase MDM2-mediated degradation. Under stress, nucleophosmin (NPM) relocates from the nucleolus to the nucleoplasm and binds MDM2, thereby preventing degradation of p53 and allowing cell-cycle arrest and DNA repair. Here, we demonstrate that the mammalian sirtuin SIRT7 is an essential component for the regulation of p53 stability during stress responses induced by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. The catalytic activity of SIRT7 is substantially increased upon UV irradiation through ataxia telangiectasia mutated and Rad3 related (ATR)-mediated phosphorylation, which promotes efficient deacetylation of the SIRT7 target NPM. Deacetylation is required for stress-dependent relocation of NPM into the nucleoplasm and MDM2 binding, thereby preventing ubiquitination and degradation of p53. In the absence of SIRT7, stress-dependent stabilization of p53 is abrogated, both in vitro and in vivo, impairing cellular stress responses. The study uncovers an essential SIRT7-dependent mechanism for stabilization of the tumor suppressor p53 in response to genotoxic stress.

Instability of CII is needed for efficient switching between lytic and lysogenic development in bacteriophage 186.

The CII protein of temperate coliphage 186, like the unrelated CII protein of phage λ, is a transcriptional activator that primes expression of the CI immunity repressor and is critical for efficient establishment of lysogeny. 186-CII is also highly unstable, and we show that in vivo degradation is mediated by both FtsH and RseP. We investigated the role of CII instability by constructing a 186 phage encoding a protease resistant CII. The stabilised-CII phage was defective in the lysis-lysogeny decision: choosing lysogeny with close to 100% frequency after infection, and forming prophages that were defective in entering lytic development after UV treatment. While lysogenic CI concentration was unaffected by CII stabilisation, lysogenic transcription and CI expression was elevated after UV. A stochastic model of the 186 network after infection indicated that an unstable CII allowed a rapid increase in CI expression without a large overshoot of the lysogenic level, suggesting that instability enables a decisive commitment to lysogeny with a rapid attainment of sensitivity to prophage induction.

Photoactive Bifunctional Degraders: Precision Tools To Regulate Protein Stability.

Targeted protein degradation with bifunctional degraders is positioned as a remarkable game-changing strategy to control cellular protein levels and promises a new therapeutic modality in drug discovery. Light activation of a degrader to achieve exquisite spatiotemporal control over protein stability in cells has attracted the interest of multiple research groups, with recent reports demonstrating optical control of proteolysis with chimeric molecules bearing photolabile or photoswitchable motifs. In this context of targeted proteolysis research spurring the emergence of innovative tools, we examine the design, synthesis, and properties of light-activated degraders. The significant impact of this approach in regulating disease-relevant protein levels in a light-dependent manner is highlighted with key examples, and future developments to fully harness the potential of light-induced protein degradation with photoactive bifunctional molecules are discussed.

Protein Cohabitation: Improving the Photochemical Stability of R-Phycoerythrin in the Solid State.

The poor photochemical stability of R-phycoerythrin (R-PE) has been a bottleneck for its broad-spectrum applications. Inspired by nature, we studied a sustainable strategy of protein cohabitation to enhance R-PE stability by embedding it in a solid matrix of gelatin. Both pure R-PE and fresh phycobiliprotein (PBP) extracts recovered from Gracilaria gracilis were studied. The incorporation of R-PE in the gelatin-based films (gelatin-RPE and gelatin-PBPs) has improved its photochemical stability for at least 8 months, the longest time period reported so far. These results were evidenced by not only absorption but also emission quantum yield measurements (Φ). Moreover, the photostability of gelatin-RPE films upon continuous excitation with an AM1.5G solar simulator was tested and found to remain stable for 23 h after initial decreasing up to 250 min. In the end, another approach was established to allow 100% photostability for a 3 h exposure to an AM1.5G solar simulator by doping the gelatin-based film including R-Phycoerythrin with n-propyl gallate stabilized with Tween 80, allowing their use as naturally based optically active centers in photovoltaic applications.

The cataract-related S39C variant increases γS-crystallin sensitivity to environmental stress by destroying the intermolecular disulfide cross-links.

γS-crystallin, a crucial structural lens protein, plays an important role in maintaining lens transparency through its solubility and stability. The S39C mutation, a proven pathogenic mutation involved in congenital cataract, resulted in progressive cataract in adolescents. In this study, using biophysical methods, we thoroughly investigated the effects of the S39C mutation on the γS-crystallin structure, stability and propensity for aggregations. The data from spectroscopy analyses did not reveal an effect of the S39C mutation on the native structure of monomeric γS-crystallin. However, when faced with oxidative conditions, the S39C mutation prevented γS-crystallin from forming stable disulfide-linked dimers and remarkably increased hydrophobicity and the propensity to aggregate and precipitate. Under UV irradiation, heat shock, and GdnHCl-induced denaturation, the S39C mutant tended to aggregate and was prone to form more deleterious aggregates than the wild type protein. Therefore, the S39C mutation significantly increased the sensitivity of γS-crystallin to environmental stress. However, the addition of αA-crystallin and lanosterol did not change the tendency of the mutant to aggregate. According to molecular dynamic (MD) simulations, the S39C mutation had little effect on the secondary or tertiary structures of monomeric γS-crystallin but disrupted the disulfide-linked structure of the γS-crystallin dimer. The cleavage of this bond might largely reduce the structural stability of γS-crystallin. The significant decrease in the structural stability along with the increasing aggregation tendency under environmental stress might be the major causes of progressive juvenile onset cataracts induced by the S39C mutation.

Reversible SUMOylation of FHY1 Regulates Phytochrome A Signaling in Arabidopsis.

In response to far-red light (FR), FAR-RED ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL 1 (FHY1) transports the photoactivated phytochrome A (phyA), the primary FR photoreceptor, into the nucleus, where it initiates FR signaling in plants. Light promotes the 26S proteasome-mediated degradation of FHY1, which desensitizes FR signaling, but the underlying regulatory mechanism remains largely unknown. Here, we show that reversible SUMOylation of FHY1 tightly regulates this process. Lysine K32 (K32) and K103 are major SUMOylation sites of FHY1. We found that FR exposure promotes the SUMOylation of FHY1, which accelerates its degradation. Furthermore, we discovered that ARABIDOPSIS SUMO PROTEASE 1 (ASP1) interacts with FHY1 in the nucleus under FR and facilitates its deSUMOylation. FHY1 was strongly SUMOylated and its protein level was decreased in the asp1-1 loss-of-function mutant compared with that in the wild type under FR. Consistently, asp1-1 seedlings exhibited a decreased sensitivity to FR, suggesting that ASP1 plays an important role in the maintenance of proper FHY1 levels under FR. Genetic analysis further revealed that ASP1 regulates FR signaling through an FHY1- and phyA-dependent pathway. Interestingly, We found that continuous FR inhibits ASP1 accumulation, perhaps contributing to the desensitization of FR signaling. Taken together, these results indicate that FR-induced SUMOylation and ASP1-dependent deSUMOylation of FHY1 represent a key regulatory mechanism that fine-tunes FR signaling.

Protein Stability and Photostability under In Vitro Vitreal Conditions - Implications for Long Acting Delivery of Protein Therapeutics for Ocular Disease.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the stability of a model Mab1 and Fab1 under in vitro vitreal conditions in the presence of various metabolites and in the presence of light at λ > 400 nM. METHODS: A full length IgG1 monoclonal antibody (Mab1) and a fab fragment (Fab1) were formulated with various metabolites typically found in the vitreous humor and subjected to visible light treatment. Both proteins were analyzed using a variety of biochemical techniques. Furthermore, Fab1 was also tested for antigen binding ability using surface plasmon resonance. RESULTS: Our data shows that some vitreal metabolites such as riboflavin and ascorbic acid affect protein stability, via formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and advanced glycation end products (AGE) s respectively. In contrast, metabolites such as glutathione may protect these proteins from light-induced degradation to some extent. CONCLUSIONS: Ascorbic acid and riboflavin were found to photosensitize therapeutic proteins especially when exposed to light. Ascorbic acid reacted with proteins even in the absence of light. Antioxidants such as glutathione helped limit photooxidation under ambient or blue light exposure. Since antioxidant capacity in the eye decreases with age we recommend understanding long term stability, including photooxidation and photosensitization, of new candidate proteins in the context of controlled or sustained release technologies for ocular diseases.

Incorporation of Lutein on Layered Double Hydroxide for Improving the Environmental Stability.

To overcome the poor stability of natural lutein to environmental factors, layered double hydroxide was incorporated by a green mechanical grinding process. The influences of external factors (chemical reagents, heating and light) on the stability of lutein before and after being loaded were evaluated. The results confirmed that lutein was mainly adsorbed on the surface of layered double hydroxide (LDH) via the chemical interaction. Compared with pure lutein, the thermal decomposition of lutein/LDH was improved from 100 °C to 300 °C, and the retention ratio of lutein was increased by about 8.64% and 21.47% after 96 h of light exposure and accelerated degradation, respectively. It is expected that the stable lutein/LDH composites may constitutean additive in animal feed.

Photo-Degradation of Therapeutic Proteins: Mechanistic Aspects.

PURPOSE: Therapeutic proteins are sensitive to photo-degradation by UV A and visible light. As none of the essential amino acids exhibits significant absorption in the UV A and visible light regions, the underlying mechanisms of photo-degradation induced by UV A and visible light are not well understood. This review addresses potential mechanisms, by which protein structure, oxidative modifications or impurities can promote the photo-degradation of therapeutic proteins during the exposure to UV A and visible light.

Brevinin-GR23 from frog Hylarana guentheri with antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities against Staphylococcus aureus.

Brevinin-GR23 (B-GR23) was a brevinin-2 like antimicrobial peptide, which had antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 16 µM. B-GR23 increased the bacterial membrane permeation, leading to the damage of membrane integrity and the leakage of genomic DNA, then causing the cell death. The peptide nearly inhibited all plantonic bacteria to start the initial attachment of biofilm at the concentration of 1 × MIC. Whereas the disruption rates on immature and mature biofilm decreased from 60% to 20%. B-GR23 reduced the production of extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) in the planktonic growth of S. aureus, which is a crucial structure of biofilm formation. B-GR23 with the concentration of ½ × MIC inhibited 50% water-soluble EPS, and 48% water-insoluble EPS, which contributed to the antibiofilm activity. B-GR23 had no significant toxicity to human blood cells under-tested concentration (200 µM), making it a potential template for designing antimicrobial peptides.

Repurposing Protein Degradation for Optogenetic Modulation of Protein Activities.

Non-neuronal optogenetic approaches empower precise regulation of protein dynamics in live cells but often require target-specific protein engineering. To address this challenge, we developed a generalizable light-modulated protein stabilization system (GLIMPSe) to control the intracellular protein level independent of its functionality. We applied GLIMPSe to control two distinct classes of proteins: mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase 3 (MKP3), a negative regulator of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway, and a constitutively active form of MEK (CA MEK), a positive regulator of the same pathway. Kinetics study showed that light-induced protein stabilization could be achieved within 30 min of blue light stimulation. GLIMPSe enables target-independent optogenetic control of protein activities and therefore minimizes the systematic variation embedded within different photoactivatable proteins. Overall, GLIMPSe promises to achieve light-mediated post-translational stabilization of a wide array of target proteins in live cells.

An optimized yeast display strategy for efficient scFv antibody selection using ribosomal skipping system and thermo resistant yeast.

OBJECTIVES: Establish a method to restrict unexpected fragments including stop codons in scFv library and generate a thermo resistant strain for screening of thermal stable scFv sequences. RESULTS: Here, we have constructed a T2A-Leu2 system for selection of yeast surface display libraries that blocks amplification of "stop codon" plasmids within the library, thereby increasing the quality of the library and efficiency of the selection screen. Also, we generated a temperature-resistant yeast strain, TR1, and validated its combined use with T2A-Leu2 for efficient screening. Thus, we developed a general approach for a fast and efficient screening of scFv libraries using a ribosomal skipping system and thermo-resistant yeast. CONCLUSIONS: The method highlights the utility of the T2A-Leu2-based ribosomal skipping strategy for increasing the quality of the input library for selection, along with an optimized selection protocol based on thermo-resistant yeast cells.

Post-transcriptional regulation of Ghd7 protein stability by phytochrome and OsGI in photoperiodic control of flowering in rice.

Rice (Oryza sativa) is a facultative short-day (SD) plant, flowering early under SD and late under long-day (LD) conditions. Ghd7 is a major regulator of flowering time in rice, which strongly delays flowering under LD. Induction of Ghd7 expression by phytochromes has been shown to contribute to photoperiodic regulation of flowering in rice. Here, we show that Ghd7 also is regulated by phytochromes at a post-transcriptional level. We found that constitutive expression of Ghd7 delays flowering in the wild-type (WT) background, but not in the se5 mutant background (deficient in functional phytochromes) under LD and that Ghd7 protein fails to accumulate in the se5 mutant. We also found that co-expressing OsGIGANTEA (OsGI) with Ghd7 causes reduced accumulation of Ghd7 protein and partially suppresses the delayed flowering phenotype in the WT background, suggesting that phytochromes and OsGI play antagonist roles in regulating Ghd7 protein stability and flowering time. We show that OsPHYA, OsPHYB and OsGI could directly interact with Ghd7. Interestingly, OsPHYA and OsPHYB could inhibit the interaction between OsGI and Ghd7, thus helping to stabilize Ghd7 protein. Our results revealed a new level of Ghd7 regulation by phytochromes and OsGI in photoperiodic control of flowering in rice.

Direct Radiation Effects on the Structure and Stability of Collagen and Other Proteins.

In this review, recent progress in understanding the direct effects of radiation on the structure and stability of collagen, the most abundant protein in the human body, and other proteins is surveyed. Special emphasis is placed on the triple-helical structure of collagen, as studied by means of collagen mimetic peptides. The emerging patterns are the dose dependence of radiation processes and their abundance, the crucial role of radicals in covalent-bond formation (crosslinking) or cleavage, and the influence of the radiation energy and nature. Future research should allow fundamental questions, such as charge transfer and fragmentation dynamics triggered by ionization, to be answered, as well as developing applications such as protein-based biomaterials, notably with properties controlled by irradiation.

Optogenetic Downregulation of Protein Levels with an Ultrasensitive Switch.

Optogenetic control of protein activity is a versatile technique to gain control over cellular processes, for example, for biomedical and biotechnological applications. Among other techniques, the regulation of protein abundance by controlling either transcription or protein stability found common use as this controls the activity of any type of target protein. Here, we report modules of an improved variant of the photosensitive degron module and a light-sensitive transcription factor, which we compared to doxycycline-dependent transcriptional control. Given their modularity the combined control of synthesis and stability of a given target protein resulted in the synergistic down regulation of its abundance by light. This combined module exhibits very high switching ratios, profound downregulation of protein abundance at low light-fluxes, and fast protein depletion kinetics. Overall, this synergistic optogenetic multistep control (SOMCo) module is easy to implement and results in a regulation of protein abundance superior to each individual component.

Molecular bases for the constitutive photomorphogenic phenotypes in Arabidopsis.

The transition from skotomorphogenesis to photomorphogenesis is regulated in part by the COP1/SPA complex and phytochrome-interacting factors (PIFs) in Arabidopsis The constitutive photomorphogenic (cop) phenotypes of cop1 and spaQ mutants have been shown to result from a high abundance of positively acting transcription factors. Here, we show that the four major PIF proteins are unstable in cop1 mutants and that overexpression of PIF1, PIF3, PIF4 and PIF5 suppresses cop1 phenotypes in the dark. A comparison of the transcriptome data among cop1, spaQ and pifQ reveals remarkably overlapping gene expression profiles with preferential regulation of PIF direct target genes. Additionally, HFR1 strongly inhibits the in vivo binding and transcriptional activation activity of PIF1 in the dark. Taken together, these data suggest that the cop phenotypes of the cop1 and spaQ mutants are due to a combination of the reduced level of PIFs, increased levels of positively acting transcription factors (e.g. HY5/HFR1) and the HFR1-mediated inhibition of PIF-targeted gene expression in the dark. This article has an associated 'The people behind the papers' interview.

Dual-controlled optogenetic system for the rapid down-regulation of protein levels in mammalian cells.

Optogenetic switches are emerging molecular tools for studying cellular processes as they offer higher spatiotemporal and quantitative precision than classical, chemical-based switches. Light-controllable gene expression systems designed to upregulate protein expression levels meanwhile show performances superior to their chemical-based counterparts. However, systems to reduce protein levels with similar efficiency are lagging behind. Here, we present a novel two-component, blue light-responsive optogenetic OFF switch ('Blue-OFF'), which enables a rapid and quantitative down-regulation of a protein upon illumination. Blue-OFF combines the first light responsive repressor KRAB-EL222 with the protein degradation module B-LID (blue light-inducible degradation domain) to simultaneously control gene expression and protein stability with a single wavelength. Blue-OFF thus outperforms current optogenetic systems for controlling protein levels. The system is described by a mathematical model which aids in the choice of experimental conditions such as light intensity and illumination regime to obtain the desired outcome. This approach represents an advancement of dual-controlled optogenetic systems in which multiple photosensory modules operate synergistically. As exemplified here for the control of apoptosis in mammalian cell culture, the approach opens up novel perspectives in fundamental research and applications such as tissue engineering.