Burnout en el contexto deportivo: análisis teórico-práctico del estado de la cuestión / Burnout in the sporting context: theoretical and practical analysis of the state of the

Con este trabajo pretendemos aproximarnos a la situación actual que, en materia de invstigación y aplicación, podemos encontrar con relación al síndrome de burnout en el contexto deportivo. Para ello hemos analizado los trabajos científicos más recientes, con la finalidad de obtener aquellas tendencias que actualmente está adquiriendo la investigación de este sindrome, siempre desde la perspectiva deportiva que nos ocupa. Para ello, además, hemos buscado las aplicaciones prácticas que dichas investigaciones pueden tener para el psicólogo del deporte que trabaja directamente con deportistas y entrnadores, principalmente. Como se irá desarrollando, a lo largo de la descripción ofrecida, empiezan a exitir pilares sólidos en esta línea de estudio y trabajo aplicado, tanto desde la perspectiva avaluativa, como desde los planteamientos teóricos y prácticos más recientes. Se concluye acerca de las líneas principales de trabajo a las que hábra que atender cuando el psicólogo se erncuentre con deportistas y entrenadores con burnout, bien desde la intervención directa, bien desde planteamientos preventivos(AU)

With this work we try to come closer the current situation that, as for invstigación and application, we can find with relation to the syndrome of burnout in the sports context. For it we have analyzed the most recent scientific works, with the purpose of obtaining those trends that nowadays there is acquiring the investigation of this syndrome, always from the sports perspective quenos occupies. For it, in addition, we have looked for the applications practical that the above mentioned investigations can have for the psychologist of the sport who works directly with sportsmen and entrnadores, principally. Since it will be developing, along the offered description, they begin to exitir solid props in this line of study and applied work, so much from the perspective avaluativa, since from the most recent theoretical and practical expositions. He concludes brings over of the principal lines of work to which hábra to that to attend when the psychologist erncuentre with sportsmen and trainers with burnout, well from the direct intervention, well from preventive expositions (AU)

Estrés psicosocial: algunos aspectos clínicos y experimentales / Psychosocial stress: some clinical and experimental aspects

El presente trabajo aborda conceptos actuales del estrés, resaltando el de tipo social. El estrés psicosocial es un factor que predispone al desarrollo de diversas enfermedades en el ser humano cuyos efectos impactan sobre su calidad de vida y de salud. Se han identificado y diferenciado algunos de los factores sociales que producen estrés. Sin embargo, dadas las dificultades metodológicas y éticas para estudiar los efectos del estrés psicosocial en el ser humano, ha sido necesario diseñar modelos animales en los que se emplean estresores psicosociales a los que se enfrentan los animales cuando viven en grupo, por ejemplo el modelo de derrota social. Los datos provenientes de estos modelos han permitido entender algunos de los mecanismos neurobiológicos que subyacen al desarrollo de psicopatologías derivadas del estrés social, identificándose algunas de las estructuras participantes, como la amígdala del lóbulo temporal y a partir de estudios clínicos en seres humanos se ha identificado el papel que desempeña la corteza prefrontal en la toma de decisiones y en la planeación de respuestas conductuales socialmente apropiadas

The present revision approaches the definition of the concept of stress generated by different social factors. Psychosocial stress induces diverse pathologies in human being, contributing to health perturbation. The study of the effects of psychosocial stress in the human is limited since methodological and ethical considerations; however, the observation of the strategies to cope with stress in animal models, as well as its neurobiological correlates is a useful tool for the neurobiological study of psychosocial stress. For example, in the social defeat the display some signs suggesting an increased anxiety and despair, both processes involve the participation of the amygdala, and from some clinical studies in human it has additionally been suggested the involvement of the prefrontal cortex portion, in the decisionmaking process and the selection of the socially appropriated response

[Stress concept in the centennial of Hans Selye].

Stress concept substantially evolved since its creation by Hans Selye in 1936. New definitions of the stress were suggested. The knowledge of the stress mechanisms and mediators was widened. The changes in genes activities were included in the list of participants of the stress response along with the hormones, neurotransmitters and tissue factors. "Nonspecificity" of the stress response mechanisms was defined more exactly, especially concerning their neuronal parts. The stress theory was enriched by the idea of "allostasis". Stress concept and the discussions on it stimulated investigation of molecular-genetic mechanisms of the organisms' defensive reactions, and this concept still retain its significance for modem biomedical sciences.

Dental indicators of health and stress in early Egyptian and Nubian agriculturalists: a difficult transition and gradual recovery.

Although agriculture is now the globally predominant mode of food production, studies of the skeletal remains of early agriculturalists have indicated high levels of physiological stress and poor health relative to hunter-gatherers in similar environments. Previous studies identifying this trend in different regions prompt further research of the causes and effects of subsistence transitions in human societies. Here, 242 dentitions from five ancient Egyptian and Nubian populations are examined: 38 individuals from Jebel Sahaba (Upper Paleolithic), 56 from Badari (Predynastic), 54 from Naqada (Predynastic), 47 from Tarkhan (Dynastic), and 47 from Kerma (Dynastic). These populations span the early period of agricultural intensification along the Nile valley. Skeletal remains were scored for the presence of linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) of the dentition, an established indicator of physiological stress and growth interruption. The prevalence of LEH was highest in the "proto-agricultural" (pastoralist) Badari population, with a gradual decline throughout the late Predynastic and early Dynastic periods of state formation. This suggests that the period surrounding the emergence of early agriculture in the Nile valley was associated with high stress and poor health, but that the health of agriculturalists improved substantially with the increasing urbanization and trade that accompanied the formation of the Egyptian state. This evidence for poor health among proto- and early agriculturalists in the Nile valley supports theories that agricultural intensification occurred as a response to ecological or demographic pressure rather than simply as an innovation over an existing stable subsistence strategy.

Historical approach and evolution of the stress concept: a personal account.

As a matter of research or as a process, stress remains one of the most cited construct in biomedical literature; a medline survey accounts for more than 210,000 citations since 1970. It is difficult to define. It is frequently used in a vague manner, including undifferently the agent, the process, and the response. The concept is multidimensional and composite, including emotion and arousal. Stress has an implicit: it implies alteration of a theoretical balance or equilibrium within physiological systems, and it seems to characterize a process leading to disease. Large individual differences exist in the way to react to a stressor. Psychological and cognitive determinants are central for the course of the process. The homeostasis concept is not useful anymore and has been replaced by the more accurate and flexible concept of allostasis. The physiological hormonal and neural bases of this process are now identified. New perspectives identify stressors, chronic or not, to be a source of vulnerabilities through epigenetic mechanisms and a series of biobehavioral disorders characteristic of our modern civilizations. The evolution of the concept is not linear. It has been enriched by recent neurobiological-neuroendocrinological discoveries and also by behavioral-cognitive sciences.

Evolution of concepts of stress.

This essay describes the evolution of stress as a medical scientific idea. Claude Bernard, Walter B. Cannon and Hans Selye provided key founding concepts for the current view. Bernard introduced the idea of the internal environment bathing cells - the milieu intérieur - maintained by continual compensatory changes of bodily functions. Cannon coined the word, "homeostasis," referring to a set of acceptable ranges of values for internal variables. Cannon taught that threats to homeostasis evoke activation of the sympathoadrenal system as a functional unit. Selye defined stress as a state characterized by a uniform response pattern, regardless of the particular stressor, that could lead to long-term pathologic changes. "Allostasis" was introduced as a concept in recognition that there is no single ideal set of steady-state conditions in life; instead, setpoints and other response criteria change continuously. Stress is now viewed neither as a perturbation nor a stereotyped response pattern but as a condition characterized by a perceived discrepancy between information about a monitored variable and criteria for eliciting patterned effector responses. Different stressors elicit different patterns of activation of the sympathetic nervous, adrenomedullary hormonal, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical and other effectors, closing negative feedback loops. This systems concept of stress yields predictions that observation or experimentation can test and that are applicable to normal physiology and to a variety of acute and chronic disorders.

Health of the non-elites at Tombos: Nutritional and disease stress in New Kingdom Nubia.

During the New Kingdom period, Egypt succeeded in occupying most of Nubia. Colonial towns were built, which served as centers of government and redistribution. This paper uses a bioarchaeological approach to address the effects of this cultural contact on non-elites. Skeletal remains from the site of Tombos (N = 100), a cemetery in Upper Nubia dating to this important time, are analyzed, in addition to 1,082 individuals from contemporaneous Egyptian and Nubian sites, in order to shed light on the social, political, and economic processes at play and to determine how the people at Tombos were affected during this transitional period. In many ways, the Tombos population appears to have been affected by similar stressors as the other populations under study. However, a few small differences in the subadult frequencies of pathological lesions, especially remodeling rates, are significant in the overall picture of health at Tombos. These analyses suggest that, although the people of Tombos may have been integrated into the Egyptian colonial network, the additional resources they may have obtained could not protect them from nutritional and disease stress. A lower childhood survival through bouts of ill health at Tombos is suggested. While status may have played a role in the differences seen in the comparative populations, it is likely that parasites and/or other infections led to childhood illness and death.

Comparison of child morbidity in two contrasting medieval cemeteries from Denmark.

This study compares associations between demographic profiles, long bone lengths, bone mineral content, and frequencies of stress indicators in the preadult populations of two medieval skeletal assemblages from Denmark. One is from a leprosarium, and thus probably represents a disadvantaged group (Naestved). The other comes from a normal, and in comparison rather privileged, medieval community (AEbelholt). Previous studies of the adult population indicated differences between the two skeletal collections with regard to mortality, dental size, and metabolic and specific infectious disease. The two samples were analyzed against the view known as the "osteological paradox" (Wood et al. [1992] Curr. Anthropol. 33:343-370), according to which skeletons displaying pathological modification are likely to represent the healthier individuals of a population, whereas those without lesions would have died without acquiring modifications as a result of a depressed immune response. Results reveal that older age groups among the preadults from Naestved are shorter and have less bone mineral content than their peers from AEbelholt. On average, the Naestved children have a higher prevalence of stress indicators, and in some cases display skeletal signs of leprosy. This is likely a result of the combination of compromised health and social disadvantage, thus supporting a more traditional interpretation. The study provides insights into the health of children from two different biocultural settings of medieval Danish society and illustrates the importance of comparing samples of single age groups.

Linear enamel hypoplasias as indicators of systemic physiological stress: evidence from two known age-at-death and sex populations from postmedieval London.

Enamel hypoplasias are useful indicators of systemic growth disturbances during childhood, and are routinely used to investigate patterns of morbidity and mortality in past populations. This study examined the pattern of linear enamel hypoplasias in two different burial populations from 18th and 19th Century church crypts in London. Linear enamel hypoplasias on the permanent dentitions of individuals from the crypt of Christ Church, Spitalfields, were compared to enamel defects on the teeth of individuals from St. Bride's. The method used involves the identification of enamel defects at a microscopic level, and systemic perturbations are detected by matching hypoplasias among different tooth classes within each individual. The pattern of linear enamel hypoplasias was contrasted between individuals from the burial sites of Spitalfields and St. Bride's, between males and females, and between those aged less than 20 years of age and those aged over 20 years at death. Six different parameters were examined: frequency of linear enamel hypoplasias, interval between defects, duration of hypoplasias, age at first occurrence of hypoplasia, age at last occurrence of hypoplasia, and the percentage of enamel formation time taken up by growth disturbances. All individuals in the study displayed linear enamel hypoplasias, with up to 33% of total visible enamel formation time affected by growth disruptions. Multiple regression analysis indicated a number of significant differences in the pattern of enamel hypoplasias. Individuals from Spitalfields had shorter intervals between defects and greater percentages of enamel formation time affected by growth disturbances than did individuals from St. Bride's. Females had greater numbers of linear enamel hypoplasias, shorter intervals between defects, and greater percentages of enamel formation time affected by growth disturbances than males. There were also differences in the pattern of enamel hypoplasias and age at death in this study. Individuals who died younger in life had an earlier age at first occurrence of enamel hypoplasia than those who survived to an older age. The pattern of enamel hypoplasias detected in this study was influenced by tooth crown geometry and tooth wear such that most defects were found in the midcrown and cervical regions of the teeth, and greater numbers of defects were identified on the anterior teeth. Differences in sensitivity of the parameters used for the detection of enamel hypoplasias were found in this study. The percentage of visible enamel formation time affected by growth disturbances was the parameter that identified the greatest number of significant differences among the subgroups examined.

[Cribra orbitalia, dentin hypoplasia and life expectancy of 20-year-old persons as social and sex specific stress indicators in correlation with the health status of an early medieval population]. / Cribra orbitalia, Schmelzhypoplasie und Lebenserwartung der 20 jährigen als sozial- und geschlechtsspezifische Stressindikatoren bezüglich der Gesundheitssituation einer frühmittelalterlichen Bevölkerung.

The aim of this study is based on the analysis of diachronically social and sexual specific considerations on the life situation of the early medieval population of Schleitheim, Kanton Schaffhausen, Switzerland. Cribra orbitalia and the linear enamel hypoplasia of the teeth are considered as stressors. This study is based on the life expectancy of the 20 years old, as the life expectancy gives information on the health condition of a social group or an entire population. The considered indicators show the same tendencies in three of the four social groups (women social group A and group B/C, men of the social group A). The female and male population of the social group A show a steady decrease in the indicator from the 5th century to come to its lowest level in the 7th century. The same parameters indicate a continuous increase in stress for the female population of the group B/C. Only one of the three indicators, the Cribra orbitalia, shows a positive tendency in the male population of the social group B/C from the 6th century to the following period, while hypoplasia and the life expectancy on the other hand indicate a negative tendency. The results show equal tendencies in the three independent indicators concerning three of the four social groups. This proves the high reliability of the indicators. These results are astonishing in two ways. First of all, the tendencies show that the originally better life situation of women of the higher ranking social group decreases in the following periods, whereas the women of the lower social group show an inverse development. This female population of low life situation in the 5th century shows an increase in life qualities in the following periods. Remarkable, too, is the fact, that the female population of both social groups shows a lower level of stress than the corresponding male population. This fact is astonishing, as we would expect inverse results in a patriarchal society. This may point to a well known fact: Women show a higher vitality than the male population.

Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte: did he have seizures? Psychogenic or epileptic or both?

Napoleon Bonaparte was a general in the French army at 24 years of age, later conquering most of Europe. He was one of the greatest military geniuses the world has ever known, but also an extremely intelligent individual. Did he have seizures? The evidence shows that he had both psychogenic and epileptic attacks. The psychogenic attacks were likely related to the tremendous stress in his life, and the epileptic seizures were the result of chronic uremia from a severe urethral stricture caused by gonorrhea that was transmitted from his wife, Empress Josephine.

Age structure and selected pathological aspects of a series of skeletons of late medieval Bernau (Brandenburg, Germany).

The age distribution of an excavation site from the late Middle Ages (beginning of the 13th century until 1598) in Bernau (Brandenburg, Germany) that contained 252 skeletons shows a mortality maximum at the age classes infants I and mature. The lowest mortality was calculated for the adult age class. 51.6% of the individuals died before the age of 20 years. The mortality rate of young women was higher than that of young men. The life expectancy of the total population was 25 years. Altogether, 87 adult skeletons were examined for degenerative joint diseases. Many of the examined joints showed indications of beginning osteoarthritis; the intensity of the disease was low or medium severe. The highest values were found for the hip joint, followed by the elbow and the knee. For all joints examined, women were less often and to a lesser extent affected than men, which was noticeable best in the upper extremity. Harris lines were found in 75% of the children, 4.7 per average individual. No such lines were found by the age of one year, the peak value of the frequency being recorded at the age between 2 and 3 years. This can be correlated to the weaning period. The comparison to a rural population yielded a higher load with Harris lines in the small village, which, however, was not correlated to a higher mortality. Altogether, the population of Bernau is characterised by good living conditions and a considerable chance of survival for the children, as well as by a labour system, dominated by crafts and farming.

[Structural characteristics of dental cementum of skeletal remains of the first Catholic cemetery in Berlin (St. Hedwig's Cemetery, Central Berlin; 1777-1834)]. / Strukturauffälligkeiten des Zahnzementes von Bestattungen des ersten katholischen Friedhofs in Berlin (St. Hedwigs-Friedhof, Berlin-Mitte; 1777-1834).

Analysis of the incremental lines of human tooth cementum permits the chronological age-at-death diagnosis in skeletal finds. In addition, certain life history parameters, especially times of higher physiological calcium demand, should also manifest themselves in the cementum in the form of hypomineralized incremental lines. It has been shown previously that counting the incremental lines leads to a chronological age-at-death diagnosis more precise than the morphological age-at-death assessment, particularly in less well preserved skeletal finds. Both aspects were subject of this investigation of an underprivileged early modern human population.