Targeted Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy of Biofilm-Embedded and Intracellular Staphylococci with a Phage Endolysin's Cell Binding Domain.

Bacterial pathogens are progressively adapting to current antimicrobial therapies with severe consequences for patients and global health care systems. This is critically underscored by the rise of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and other biofilm-forming staphylococci. Accordingly, alternative strategies have been explored to fight such highly multidrug resistant microorganisms, including antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) and phage therapy. aPDT has the great advantage that it does not elicit resistance, while phage therapy allows targeting of specific pathogens. In the present study, we aimed to merge these benefits by conjugating the cell-binding domain (CBD3) of a Staphylococcus aureus phage endolysin to a photoactivatable silicon phthalocyanine (IRDye 700DX) for the development of a Staphylococcus-targeted aPDT approach. We show that, upon red-light activation, the resulting CBD3-700DX conjugate generates reactive oxygen species that effectively kill high loads of planktonic and biofilm-resident staphylococci, including MRSA. Furthermore, CBD3-700DX is readily internalized by mammalian cells, where it allows the targeted killing of intracellular MRSA upon photoactivation. Intriguingly, aPDT with CBD3-700DX also affects mammalian cells with internalized MRSA, but it has no detectable side effects on uninfected cells. Altogether, we conclude that CBD3 represents an attractive targeting agent for Staphylococcus-specific aPDT, irrespective of planktonic, biofilm-embedded, or intracellular states of the bacterium. IMPORTANCE Antimicrobial resistance is among the biggest threats to mankind today. There are two alternative antimicrobial therapies that may help to control multidrug-resistant bacteria. In phage therapy, natural antagonists of bacteria, lytic phages, are harnessed to fight pathogens. In antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT), a photosensitizer, molecular oxygen, and light are used to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) that inflict lethal damage on pathogens. Since aPDT destroys multiple essential components in targeted pathogens, aPDT resistance is unlikely. However, the challenge in aPDT is to maximize target specificity and minimize collateral oxidative damage to host cells. We now present an antimicrobial approach that combines the best features of both alternative therapies, namely, the high target specificity of phages and the efficacy of aPDT. This is achieved by conjugating the specific cell-binding domain from a phage protein to a near-infrared photosensitizer. aPDT with the resulting conjugate shows high target specificity toward MRSA with minimal side effects.

Characterization of staphylococcal endolysin LysSAP33 possessing untypical domain composition.

Endolysin, a peptidoglycan hydrolase derived from bacteriophage, has been suggested as an alternative antimicrobial agent. Many endolysins on staphylococcal phages have been identified and applied extensively against Staphylococcus spp. Among them, LysK-like endolysin, a well-studied staphylococcal endolysin, accounts for most of the identified endolysins. However, relatively little interest has been paid to LysKunlike endolysin and a few of them has been characterized. An endolysin LysSAP33 encoded on bacteriophage SAP33 shared low homology with LysK-like endolysin in sequence by 41% and domain composition (CHAP-unknown CBD). A green fluorescence assay using a fusion protein for LysSAP33_CBD indicated that the CBD domain (157-251 aa) was bound to the peptidoglycan of S. aureus. The deletion of LysSAP33_CBD at the C-terminal region resulted in a significant decrease in lytic activity and efficacy. Compared to LysK-like endolysin, LysSAP33 retained its lytic activity in a broader range of temperature, pH, and NaCl concentrations. In addition, it showed a higher activity against biofilms than LysK-like endolysin. This study could be a helpful tool to develop our understanding of staphylococcal endolysins not belonging to LysK-like endolysins and a potential biocontrol agent against biofilms.

High-density phage particles immobilization in surface-modified bacterial cellulose for ultra-sensitive and selective electrochemical detection of Staphylococcus aureus.

The routinely used enzymes, antibodies, and nucleic acids-based biosensors for detection of Staphylococcus aureus are often overwhelmed by limited selectivity, sensitivity, high cost, and inability to discriminate between live/dead cells. This necessitates the development of an ultra-sensitive, stable, and selective electrochemical biosensor capable of discriminating live S. aureus in a mixture of live/dead cells in food samples. The current study reports the development of an electrochemical biosensor through the immobilization of bacteriophage in surface-modified bacterial cellulose (BC) matrix. BC being highly porous and fibrous, offers a high surface area for the impregnation of carboxylated multiwalled carbon nanotubes (c-MWCNTs) and allows high-density phage immobilization. Surface modification of BC/c-MWCNTs with polyethyleneimine (PEI) provides a positive charge that facilitates oriented phage immobilization. FE-SEM and FT-IR analyses confirmed the development of BC/c-MWCNTs-PEI-phage bio-interface. Confocal microscopy analysis showed 11.7 ± 1.2 phage particles⋅µm-2 immobilized in the BC matrix and showed anti-staphylococcal activity by producing clear lytic zone and reduced bacterial growth. Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) analysis detected 3 CFU⋅mL-1 and 5 CFU⋅mL-1 of S. aureus in phosphate buffer saline (PBS) and milk, respectively, within 30 min at neutral pH and showed stability over 6-weeks at 4 °C. The biosensor showed high specificity for S. aureus, both in pure and mixed cultures of non-host bacteria, and effectively discriminated live S. aureus in a mixture of live/dead cells. The developed biosensor represents a simple, sensitive, specific, and accurate tool for early detection of S. aureus in food samples.

Colorimetric Assay of Bacterial Pathogens Based on Co3O4 Magnetic Nanozymes Conjugated with Specific Fusion Phage Proteins and Magnetophoretic Chromatography.

It is important to detect pathogens rapidly, sensitively, and selectively for clinical medicine, homeland security, food safety, and environmental control. We report here a specific and sensitive colorimetric assay that incorporated a bovine serum albumin-templated Co3O4 magnetic nanozyme (Co3O4 MNE) with a novel specific fusion phage protein and magnetophoretic chromatography to detect Staphylococcus aureus. The Co3O4 MNE was conjugated to S. aureus-specific fusion-pVIII (Co3O4 MNE@fusion-pVIII), screened from the S. aureus-specific phage AQTFLGEQD (the phage monoclone is denoted by the peptide sequence). The as-prepared triple-functional Co3O4 MNE@fusion-pVIII particles were capable of capturing S. aureus in sterile milk, which were then isolated from milk magnetically. Assisted by polyethylene glycol, the Co3O4 MNE@fusion-pVIII@S. aureus complex was separated from the free Co3O4 MNE@fusion-pVIII by magnetophoretic chromatography in an external magnetic field. After transferring the isolated Co3O4 MNE@fusion-pVIII@S. aureus complexes into a 96-well plate, diammonium salt of 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzo-thiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) and H2O2 were added to develop color because of the peroxidase mimetics activity of the Co3O4 MNE. A S. aureus concentration within 10-10,000 cfu/mL in milk can be detected (detection limit: 8 cfu/mL). The as-developed method is simple, cost-efficient, and sensitive, which is useful for rapidly diagnosing pathogenic bacteria and helpful to prevent disease outbreaks induced by pathogens in developing countries.

HDX and Native Mass Spectrometry Reveals the Different Structural Basis for Interaction of the Staphylococcal Pathogenicity Island Repressor Stl with Dimeric and Trimeric Phage dUTPases.

The dUTPase enzyme family plays an essential role in maintaining the genome integrity and are represented by two distinct classes of proteins; the ß-pleated homotrimeric and the all-α homodimeric dUTPases. Representatives of both trimeric and dimeric dUTPases are encoded by Staphylococcus aureus phage genomes and have been shown to interact with the Stl repressor protein of S. aureus pathogenicity island SaPIbov1. In the present work we set out to characterize the interactions between these proteins based on a range of biochemical and biophysical methods and shed light on the binding mechanism of the dimeric φNM1 phage dUTPase and Stl. Using hydrogen deuterium exchange mass spectrometry, we also characterize the protein regions involved in the dUTPase:Stl interactions. Based on these results we provide reasonable explanation for the enzyme inhibitory effect of Stl observed in both types of complexes. Our experiments reveal that Stl employs different peptide segments and stoichiometry for the two different phage dUTPases which allows us to propose a functional plasticity of Stl. The malleable character of Stl serves as a basis for the inhibition of both dimeric and trimeric dUTPases.

Effective removal of staphylococcal biofilms on various food contact surfaces by Staphylococcus aureus phage endolysin LysCSA13.

Staphylococcal biofilms are recognized as a significant problem in the food industry because of their high resistance to antibiotics, and the use of bacteriophages or endolysins has been regarded as a promising alternative to antibiotics. In this study, LysCSA13, an endolysin from S. aureus virulent bacteriophage CSA13, was cloned and characterized. LysCSA13 consists of an enzymatic active domain and a cell wall binding domain. LysCSA13 showed strong antimicrobial activity against staphylococcal strains at pH 7.0-9.0, 4.0-37.0 °C and in the presence of Ca2+ and Mn2+. In addition, a high efficacy of LysCSA13 in removing staphylococcal biofilms was observed on various surfaces, including polystyrene, glass and stainless steel, displaying an approximately 80-90% decrease in biofilm mass. Furthermore, 300 nM of LysCSA13 effectively removed staphylococcal sessile cells formed on stainless steel and glass by 1-3 log units compared with the untreated control. Scanning electron microscopy analysis visualized the effective deformation and removal of cells embedded in the biofilm matrix. The results indicate that LysCSA13 can effectively control staphylococcal planktonic cells and biofilms regardless of the contact surface matrix and suggest the possible use of LysCSA13 as a promising biocontrol agent in various food processing environments.

An Ointment Consisting of the Phage Lysin LysGH15 and Apigenin for Decolonization of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus from Skin Wounds.

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a common and dangerous pathogen that causes various infectious diseases. Skin damage, such as burn wounds, are at high risk of Staphylococcus aureus colonization and infection, which increases morbidity and mortality. The phage lysin LysGH15 exhibits highly efficient lytic activity against methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) strains. Apigenin (api) significantly decreases haemolysis of rabbit erythrocytes caused by S. aureus and shows anti-inflammatory function. LysGH15 and api were added to Aquaphor to form an LysGH15-api-Aquaphor (LAA) ointment. The LAA ointment simultaneously exhibited bactericidal activity against S. aureus and inhibited haemolysis. In an LAA-treated mouse model of an MRSA-infected skin wound, the mean bacterial colony count decreased to approximately 10² CFU/mg at 18 h after treatment (and the bacteria became undetectable at 96 h), whereas the mean count in untreated mice was approximately 105 CFU/mg of tissue. The LAA ointment also reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ) and accelerated wound healing in the mouse model. These data demonstrate the potential efficacy of a combination of LysGH15 and api for use as a topical antimicrobial agent against S. aureus.

Characterization of a novel endolysin LysSA11 and its utility as a potent biocontrol agent against Staphylococcus aureus on food and utensils.

Here we show that the LysSA11 endolysin, derived from the virulent Staphylococcus aureus phage SA11, has lytic activity against staphylococcal strains. Bioinformatics analysis revealed an enzymatically active CHAP (cysteine, histidine-dependent amidohydrolases/peptidases) domain at the N-terminus of LysSA11 that showed amidase activity. A novel cell wall binding domain (CBD) in the C-terminus could bind to a broad spectrum of staphylococcal cells. The bactericidal activity of LysSA11 was determined in food and utensils artificially contaminated with methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). The amounts of MRSA bacteria in milk and on ham were significantly reduced by 1.44-log CFU/mL and 3.12-log CFU/cm3, respectively, within 15 min at refrigeration temperature (4 °C) and by 2.02-log CFU/mL and 3.37-log CFU/cm2, respectively, within 15 min at room temperature (25 °C). Moreover, a polypropylene plastic cutting board and a stainless steel knife artificially contaminated with approximately 4-log CFU/cm2 of MRSA also showed complete bacterial elimination after a 30-min treatment with 1.35 µM of LysSA11. The data presented here strongly suggest that the novel CBD-containing staphylococcal endolysin LysSA11 can be used both as a food antimicrobial and as a practical sanitizer for utensils.

Changes in the Functional Activity of Phi11 Cro Protein is Mediated by Various Ions.

Phi11, a temperate bacteriophage of Staphylococcus aureus, has been found to harbor a cro repressor gene which facilitates Phi11 to adopt the lytic mode of development. The Cro protein has been found to bind very specifically to a 15-bp operator DNA, located in the Phi11 cI-cro intergenic region [1]. To investigate the effects exerted by different ions upon the interaction between Cro and its cognate operator DNA, we have employed gel shift assays as well as circular dichroism spectral analysis. In this communication, we have shown that NH4+ and acetate- ions better facilitated the binding of Cro with its cognate operator as compared to Na+, K+ and Li+. Interestingly, Mg2+, carbonate2- and Citrate3- have an inhibitory effect upon the binding. The effect of the said ions upon the structure of Cro was also investigated by circular dichroism and it was found that other than Citrate3- ions, none of the other ions destabilised the protein. On the other hand, Mg2+ and carbonate2- ions maintained the structure of the protein but severely hampered its functional activity. Citrate3- ions severely unfolded Cro and also inhibited its function. Considering all the data, NH4+ and acetate- ions appeared to be more suitable in maintaining the biological activity of Cro.

Viral hijacking of a replicative helicase loader and its implications for helicase loading control and phage replication.

Replisome assembly requires the loading of replicative hexameric helicases onto origins by AAA+ ATPases. How loader activity is appropriately controlled remains unclear. Here, we use structural and biochemical analyses to establish how an antimicrobial phage protein interferes with the function of the Staphylococcus aureus replicative helicase loader, DnaI. The viral protein binds to the loader's AAA+ ATPase domain, allowing binding of the host replicative helicase but impeding loader self-assembly and ATPase activity. Close inspection of the complex highlights an unexpected locus for the binding of an interdomain linker element in DnaI/DnaC-family proteins. We find that the inhibitor protein is genetically coupled to a phage-encoded homolog of the bacterial helicase loader, which we show binds to the host helicase but not to the inhibitor itself. These findings establish a new approach by which viruses can hijack host replication processes and explain how loader activity is internally regulated to prevent aberrant auto-association.

Combination Therapy of LysGH15 and Apigenin as a New Strategy for Treating Pneumonia Caused by Staphylococcus aureus.

Pneumonia is one of the most prevalent Staphylococcus aureus-mediated diseases, and the treatment of this infection is becoming challenging due to the emergence of multidrug-resistant S. aureus, especially methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains. It has been reported that LysGH15, the lysin derived from phage GH15, displays high efficiency and a broad lytic spectrum against MRSA and that apigenin can markedly diminish the alpha-hemolysin of S. aureus. In this study, the combination therapy of LysGH15 and apigenin was evaluated in vitro and in a mouse S. aureus pneumonia model. No mutual adverse influence was detected between LysGH15 and apigenin in vitro. In animal experiments, the combination therapy showed a more effective treatment effect than LysGH15 or apigenin monotherapy (P < 0.05). The bacterial load in the lungs of mice administered the combination therapy was 1.5 log units within 24 h after challenge, whereas the loads in unprotected mice or mice treated with apigenin or LysGH15 alone were 10.2, 4.7, and 2.6 log units, respectively. The combination therapy group showed the best health status, the lowest ratio of wet tissue to dry tissue of the lungs, the smallest amount of total protein and cells in the lung, the fewest pathological manifestations, and the lowest cytokine level compared with the other groups (P < 0.05). With regard to its better protective efficacy, the combination therapy of LysGH15 and apigenin exhibits therapeutic potential for treating pneumonia caused by MRSA. This paper reports the combination therapy of lysin and natural products derived from traditional Chinese medicine.

Immobilized phage proteins for specific detection of staphylococci.

Rapid, specific detection of pathogenic bacteria remains a major challenge in infectious disease diagnostics. Bacteriophages can show genus- or even species-level specificity and have been developed for biosensing purposes, but the possibility of using individual phage proteins for detection has not been fully explored. This work exploits the ability of specific phage proteins, the endolysins LysK and Φ11, and the bacteriocin lysostaphin, fixed on silicon wafers to bind staphylococci. The proteins show activity against eight tested clinical isolates of S. aureus and to S. epidermidis, but no binding to Escherichia coli and limited binding to Micrococcus. Binding was quantified by clearing assays in solution and by functionalization of silicon wafers followed by light microscopy. Bacterial binding densities on functionalized surfaces were ~3 cells/100 µm(2). The small size of the proteins makes the system robust and easy to handle, and the principle is generalizable to many different biosensor platforms, including label-free systems such as optical microresonators.

Structure and enzymatic mechanism of a moonlighting dUTPase.

Genome integrity requires well controlled cellular pools of nucleotides. dUTPases are responsible for regulating cellular dUTP levels and providing dUMP for dTTP biosynthesis. In Staphylococcus, phage dUTPases are also suggested to be involved in a moonlighting function regulating the expression of pathogenicity-island genes. Staphylococcal phage trimeric dUTPase sequences include a specific insertion that is not found in other organisms. Here, a 2.1 Šresolution three-dimensional structure of a ϕ11 phage dUTPase trimer with complete localization of the phage-specific insert, which folds into a small ß-pleated mini-domain reaching out from the dUTPase core surface, is presented. The insert mini-domains jointly coordinate a single Mg2+ ion per trimer at the entrance to the threefold inner channel. Structural results provide an explanation for the role of Asp95, which is suggested to have functional significance in the moonlighting activity, as the metal-ion-coordinating moiety potentially involved in correct positioning of the insert. Enzyme-kinetics studies of wild-type and mutant constructs show that the insert has no major role in dUTP binding or cleavage and provide a description of the elementary steps (fast binding of substrate and release of products). In conclusion, the structural and kinetic data allow insights into both the phage-specific characteristics and the generally conserved traits of ϕ11 phage dUTPase.

Phage-bacterium war on polymeric surfaces: can surface-anchored bacteriophages eliminate microbial infections?

These studies illustrate synthetic paths to covalently attach T1 and Φ11 bacteriophages (phages) to inert polymeric surfaces while maintaining the bacteriophage's biological activities capable of killing deadly human pathogens. The first step involved the formation of acid (COOH) groups on polyethylene (PE) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) surfaces using microwave plasma reactions in the presence of maleic anhydride, followed by covalent attachment of T1 and Φ11 species via primary amine groups. The phages effectively retain their biological activity manifested by a rapid infection with their own DNA and effective destruction of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus human pathogens. These studies show that simultaneous covalent attachment of two biologically active phages effectively destroy both bacterial colonies and eliminate biofilm formation, thus offering an opportunity for an effective combat against multibacterial colonies as well as surface detections of other pathogens.

Genomic characterization of lytic Staphylococcus aureus phage GH15: providing new clues to intron shift in phages.

Phage GH15 is a polyvalent phage that shows activity against a wide range of Staphylcoccus aureus strains. This study analysed the genome of GH15. The genome size of GH15 (139 806 bp) was found to be larger than that of the known staphylococcal phages, and the G+C content (30.23 mol%) of GH15 was lower than that of any other staphylococcal myovirus phages. By mass spectrometry, ten structural proteins were identified. Analysis revealed that GH15 was closely related to phages G1, ISP, A5W, Sb-1 and K, and was moderately related to Twort. In light of the variability in identity, coverage, G+C content and genome size, coupled with the large number of mosaicisms, there certainly were close evolutionary relationships from K to Sb-1, A5W, ISP, G1 and finally GH15. Interestingly, all the introns and inteins present in the above phages were absent in GH15 and there appeared to be intron loss in GH15 compared with the intron gain seen in other phages. A comparison of the intron- and intein-related genes demonstrated a clear distinction in the location of the insertion site between intron-containing and intron-free alleles, and this might lead to the establishment of a consensus sequence associated with the presence of an intron or intein. The comparative analysis of the GH15 genome sequence with other phages not only provides compelling evidence for the diversity of staphylococcal myovirus phages but also offers new clues to intron shift in phages.

Recombinant portal protein from Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteriophage CNPH82 is a 13-subunit oligomer.

The portal protein cn3 of bacteriophage CNPH82 is predicted to serve as a gateway for translocation of viral genome into preformed pro-capsid, like portal proteins from other double-stranded DNA tailed bacteriophages. The host of bacteriophage CNPH82 is the opportunistic human pathogenic bacterium Staphylococcus epidermidis, a major cause of nosocomial infections. The portal protein of this phage has been cloned, overexpressed and purified. Size-exclusion chromatography-multi-angle laser light scattering analysis has indicated that the portal protein contains ∼13 subunits. Crystals of the portal protein, diffracting to 4.2 Å, have been obtained. These crystals belong to the space group C222(1) with the unit-cell parameters of a = 252.4, b = 367.0, c = 175.5 Å. The self-rotation function revealed the presence of a single 13-subunit oligomer in the asymmetric unit.

The roles of SaPI1 proteins gp7 (CpmA) and gp6 (CpmB) in capsid size determination and helper phage interference.

SaPIs are molecular pirates that exploit helper bacteriophages for their own high frequency mobilization. One striking feature of helper exploitation by SaPIs is redirection of the phage capsid assembly pathway to produce smaller phage-like particles with T=4 icosahedral symmetry rather than T=7 bacteriophage capsids. Small capsids can accommodate the SaPI genome but not that of the helper phage, leading to interference with helper propagation. Previous studies identified two proteins encoded by the prototype element SaPI1, gp6 and gp7, in SaPI1 procapsids but not in mature SaPI1 particles. Dimers of gp6 form an internal scaffold, aiding fidelity of small capsid assembly. Here we show that both SaPI1 gp6 (CpmB) and gp7 (CpmA) are necessary and sufficient to direct small capsid formation. Surprisingly, failure to form small capsids did not restore wild-type levels of helper phage growth, suggesting an additional role for these SaPI1 proteins in phage interference.

Phage endolysins with broad antimicrobial activity against Enterococcus faecalis clinical strains.

Increasing antibiotic resistance of bacterial pathogens has drawn the attention to the potential use of bacteriophage endolysins as alternative antibacterial agents. Here we have identified, characterized, and studied the lytic potential of two endolysins, Lys168 and Lys170, from phages infecting Enterococcus faecalis. Lys168 and Lys170 belong to the cysteine, histidine-dependent amidohydrolases/peptidases (CHAP) and amidase-2 protein families, respectively. Lys168 is quite a unique enterococcal phage endolysin. It shares 95% amino acidic identity with the endolysin of Staphylococcus aureus phage SAP6, which in turn is distantly related to all known CHAP endolysins of S. aureus phages. Lys170 seems to be a natural chimera assembling catalytic and cell-wall-binding domains of different origin. Both endolysins showed a clear preference to act against E. faecalis and they were able to lyse a high proportion of clinical isolates of this species. Specifically, Lys168 and Lys170 lysed more than 70% and 90% of the tested isolates, respectively, which included a panel of diverse and typed strains representative of highly prevalent clonal complexes. Lys170 was active against all tested E. faecalis VRE strains. The quasi specificity toward E. faecalis is discussed considering the nature of the enzymes' functional domains and the structure of the cell wall peptidoglycan.

Novel chimerical endolysins with broad antimicrobial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Due to their bacterial lytic action, bacteriophage endolysins have recently gained great attention as a potential alternative to antibiotics in the combat of Gram-positive pathogenic bacteria, particularly those displaying multidrug resistance. However, large-scale production and purification of endolysins is frequently impaired due to their low solubility. In addition, a large number of endolysins appear to exhibit reduced lytic efficacy when compared with their action during phage infection. Here, we took advantage of the high solubility of two recently characterized enterococcal endolysins to construct chimeras targeting Staphylococcus aureus. The putative cell wall binding domain of these endolysins was substituted by that of a staphylococcal endolysin that showed poor solubility. Under appropriate conditions the resulting chimeras presented the high solubility of the parental enterococcal endolysins. In addition, they proved to be broadly active against a collection of the most relevant methicillin-resistant S. aureus epidemic clones and against other Gram-positive pathogens. Thus, fusion of endolysin domains of heterologous origin seems to be a suitable approach to design new potent endolysins with changed and/or extended lytic spectrum that are amenable to large-scale production.

Bioprocessing of bacteriophages via rapid drying onto microcrystals.

We present an alternative bioprocess for bacteriophages involving room temperature coprecipitation of an aqueous mixture of phage (Siphoviridae) and a crystallizable carrier (glutamine or glycine) in excess of water miscible organic solvent (isopropanol or isobutanol). The resultant suspension of phage-coated microcrystals can be harvested by filtration and the residual solvent removed rapidly by air-drying at a relative humidity of 75%. Albumin or trehalose added at 5% w/w of the crystalline carrier provide for better stabilization of the phage during co-precipitation. Free-flowing dry powders generated from an aqueous solution of phage (∼13 log(10) pfu/mL) can be reconstituted in the same aqueous volume to a phage titer of almost 10 log(10) pfu/mL; high enough to permit subsequent formulation steps following bioprocessing. The phage-coated microcrystals remain partially stable at room temperature for at least one month, which compares favorably with phage immobilized into polyester microcarriers or lyophilized with excipient (1-5% polyethylene glycol 6000 or 0.1-0.5 M sucrose). We anticipate that this bioprocessing technique will have application to other phage families as required for the development of phage therapies.