Menstrual cycle influences on cue-induced smoking cravings and heart rate variability.

Women experience greater difficulties in quitting smoking than men, though the hormonal factors contributing to this sex difference remain to be clarified. The current study aimed to examine menstrual cycle effects on smoking cue-induced cravings as well as examine dynamic reproductive hormone change as a potential mediator underlying any cycle effects observed. Twenty-one women who smoke underwent two laboratory sessions - one in the mid-follicular phase and the other in the late luteal phase - involving an in-vivo smoking cue task, administered before and after exposure to a psychosocial laboratory stressor. Heart rate variability (HRV) and subjective smoking cravings were assessed in response to the cue task. The degree of change in the urinary metabolites of estradiol and progesterone from 2 days before to the day of each laboratory session was measured. Results revealed that both before and following exposure to psychosocial stress, highly nicotine-dependent women exhibited smaller cue-induced increases in HRV relative to the follicular phase. In contrast, less nicotine-dependent women exhibit an increase in HRV in both menstrual cycle phases. Results furthermore suggest that menstrual cycle effects seen in highly nicotine-dependent women are driven by the decline in estradiol and progesterone occurring in the late luteal phase. Though limited by a small sample size, this study suggests that withdrawal from reproductive hormones in the late luteal phase may alter highly nicotine-dependent women's physiological response to smoking cues, which may reflect greater difficulty resisting temptation. These findings may provide some insight regarding women's greater difficulty in maintaining abstinence after quitting smoking.

Variables emocionales y food craving: influencia del ciclo menstrual / Emotional variables and food craving: influence of the menstrual cycle

Antecedentes: El ciclo reproductor femenino - que implica interacciones entre el cerebro, el útero y los ovarios - está constituido por la fase folicular o proliferativa (también denominada pre-ovulatoria), posteriormente, tiene lugar la ovulación, tras ella comienza la fase lútea o secretora y, por último, tiene lugar la fase menstrual. Durante el ciclo menstrual la mujer experimenta cambios hormonales que pueden provocarle síntomas físicos, psicológicos y comportamentales como cambios en el apetito, pudiendo afectarle así a su ingesta alimentaria. Un fenómeno observado durante la menstruación es el food craving, definido como una necesidad irresistible de consumir comida (“ansia”), siendo predominante desear consumir alimentos procesados durante la fase premenstrual, conducta que, también se asocia a un estado de ánimo negativo. No obstante, numerosos y diversos patrones alimentarios, así como también fluctuaciones en el estado emocional, se han observado en la mujer durante las diversas fases del ciclo menstrual. Por ello, es necesario una mayor investigación en esta área. Objetivos y método: El presente trabajo, tiene como objetivos observar la variación del food craving en función de las diferentes fases del ciclo menstrual y observar la influencia de variables emocionales (ansiedad-estado de ánimo negativo) en el “ansia por comer” (food craving). Para ello, se ha realizado una búsqueda bibliográfica en las bases de datos PubMed, Scopus y otras fuentes como Wiley Online Library y ResearchGate, para obtener y contrastar las ideas de los autores de estudios previos con respecto al tema.(AU)

Background: The female reproductive cycle which involves interactions between the brain, the uterus and the ovaries, is made up of the follicular or proliferative phase (also called pre-ovulatory), later, ovulation takes place, after which the luteal or secretory phase begins and, finally, the menstrual phase takes place. During the menstrual cycle, the woman experiences hormonal changes that can cause physical, psychological and behavioral symptoms such as changes in appetite, thus affecting her food intake. A phenomenon observed during menstruation is food craving, defined as an irresistible need to consume food ("craving"), predominantly wanting to consume processed foods during the premenstrual phase, a behavior that, is also associated with a negative mood. However, numerous and diverse eating patterns, as well as fluctuations in emotional state, have been observed in women during the various phases of the menstrual cycle. Therefore, further research is needed in this area. Objectives and method: The present work aims to observe the variation of food craving in function of the different phases of the menstrual cycle and to observe the influence of emotional variables (anxiety-negative mood) in the “craving to eat” (food craving). For this, a bibliographic search was carried out in the databases PubMed, Scopus and other sources such as Wiley Online Library and ResearchGate, to obtain and contrast the ideas of the authors of previous studies regarding the topic. Discussion: It has been observed that there is a tendency to a higher energy-food pattern during the luteal phase together with an experience “food craving” also increased during this stage, in comparison with other phases of the menstrual cycle.(AU)

Exercise Performance Is Impaired during the Midluteal Phase of the Menstrual Cycle.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to test the hypothesis that aerobic exercise performance is impaired in the midluteal (ML) compared with the midfollicular (MF) phase of the menstrual cycle. METHODS: Twelve recreationally active eumenorrheic women (25 ± 6 yr) completed exercise sessions during the MF and the ML phases. Each session consisted of an 8-km cycling time trial that was preceded by 10 min of cycling performed at a constant power below and above gas exchange threshold. Heart rate, ventilation, and oxygen uptake were continuously measured. RPE and ratings of fatigue were assessed during the time trial using visual analog scales. Total mood disturbance was calculated from the POMS questionnaire administered before and 20 min postexercise. RESULTS: Salivary progesterone concentration was 578 ± 515 pg·mL-1 higher in ML compared with MF phase (P < 0.01), whereas estradiol concentration did not differ between phases (167 ± 55 vs 206 ± 120 pg·mL-1, P = 0.31). Total mood disturbance before exercise was greater during the ML phase compared with the MF phase (P < 0.01), but this difference was abolished postexercise (P = 0.14). Mean power output was lower during the ML phase (115 ± 29 vs 125 ± 28 W, P < 0.01), which led to a slower time trial in the ML phase (18.3 ± 2.0 min) compared with the MF phase (17.8 ± 1.7 min, P = 0.03). Ratings of fatigue were greater during the ML phase from 2 to 8 km (P ≤ 0.01), whereas no differences in RPE were observed. Heart rate (P = 0.85), minute ventilation (P = 0.53), and oxygen uptake (P = 0.32) did not differ between phases during the time trial. CONCLUSION: Aerobic exercise performance is worse in the ML phase compared with the MF phase in recreationally active women, which was accompanied by a more negative mood state preexercise and increased ratings of fatigue.

Exercise and Executive Function during Follicular and Luteal Menstrual Cycle Phases.

PURPOSE: A single bout of aerobic or resistance exercise improves executive function. We sought to determine whether menstrual cycle variations in ovarian hormone concentrations differentially influence the expression and/or magnitude of a postexercise executive benefit. METHODS: Eumenorrheic female participants completed 20-min single bouts of aerobic exercise (via cycle ergometer) at a moderate intensity (i.e., 80% of estimated lactate threshold) during the early follicular and midluteal phases of their menstrual cycle. Pre- and postexercise executive function was examined via antisaccades-an executive task requiring a saccade mirror-symmetrical to a visual stimulus. Antisaccades are an ideal tool for examining postexercise executive changes because the task is mediated via the same frontoparietal networks as modified following single-bout and chronic exercise. RESULTS: Antisaccade reaction times decreased from the pre- to postexercise assessments by an average of 22 ms (P = 0.003), and this benefit was independent of changes in directional errors or end point accuracy (P's > 0.26). In other words, participants did not decrease their postexercise reaction times at the cost of increased planning times or execution errors. Most notably, the postexercise antisaccade benefit did not vary in magnitude across follicular or luteal phases (P = 0.33) and a two one-sided test statistic (i.e., equivalence testing) provided support for the null hypothesis (P = 0.008). CONCLUSIONS: A postexercise executive benefit is independent of hormonal variations in the menstrual cycle. Further, our results evince that the phase of a female participant's menstrual cycle should not be a limiting factor in determining their inclusion in exercise neuroscience research.

Are there temporal subtypes of premenstrual dysphoric disorder?: using group-based trajectory modeling to identify individual differences in symptom change.

BACKGROUND: Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) is a new Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)-5 diagnosis characterized by the cyclical emergence of emotional and physical symptoms in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, with symptom remission in the follicular phase. Converging evidence highlights the possibility of distinct subtypes of PMDD with unique pathophysiologies, but temporal subgroups have yet to be explored in a systematic way. METHODS: In the current work, we use group-based trajectory modeling to identify unique trajectory subgroups of core emotional and total PMDD symptoms across the perimenstrual frame (days -14 to +9, where day 0 is menstrual onset) in a sample of 74 individuals prospectively diagnosed with DSM-5 PMDD. RESULTS: For the total daily symptom score, the best-fitting model was comprised of three groups: a group demonstrating moderate symptoms only in the premenstrual week (65%), a group demonstrating severe symptoms across the full 2 weeks of the luteal phase (17.5%), and a group demonstrating severe symptoms in the premenstrual week that were slow to resolve in the follicular phase (17.5%). CONCLUSIONS: These trajectory groups are discussed in the context of the latest work on the pathophysiology of PMDD. Experimental work is needed to test for the presence of possible pathophysiologic differences in trajectory groups, and whether unique treatment approaches are needed.

Disgust regulation between menstrual cycle phases: Differential effects of emotional suppression and reappraisal.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Immunosuppression is characteristic of the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle and is accompanied by an adaptive disgust response to reduce contact with pathogens. However, research has not examined the effects of emotion regulation on disgust during the menstrual cycle. Accordingly, the present study examines the effect of suppression and reappraisal on disgust during the luteal and follicular phases of the menstrual cycle. METHOD: Menstrual cycle phase was estimated in a sample of naturally cycling women (n = 73), and those in the follicular or luteal phase were assigned to suppress or reappraise disgust while watching a disgust-inducing video. Physiological arousal during the video and avoidance of disgust cues in a public restroom after the video were also assessed. RESULTS: No differences were observed in self-reported disgust to the video between those who suppressed and those who reappraised in the luteal phase. However, women in the follicular phase who suppressed reported less disgust than those who reappraised. The emotion regulation strategies did not influence physiology during the video or avoidance after the video as a function of menstrual cycle phase. LIMITATIONS: Hormone assay data was not collected to confirm menstrual cycle phase and a relatively small sample of naturally cycling women was used. CONCLUSIONS: Suppression may be a more effective strategy than reappraisal for reducing verbal disgust in the follicular phase but not in the luteal phase. The implications of these findings for the treatment of disgust-based disorders among women are discussed.

Disgust sensitivity in relation to menstrual cycle phase in women with and without an infection.

OBJECTIVES: The compensatory prophylaxis hypothesis (CPH) proposes that evolved psychological mechanisms enhance the avoidance of potential contaminants during periods of reproductive immunomodulation in order to decrease a chance of infection. However, the results of previous studies are inconclusive. Our aim was to investigate the differences in disgust sensitivity during phases of menstrual cycle in regularly cycling young healthy women and among women who reported having an infection. METHODS: The disgust sensitivity was measured using Two Domains of the Three Domain Disgust Scale (TDDS), Padua Inventory (PI), and photographs during the internet-based survey. Women (N = 527) were divided by phases of menstrual cycle using two different methods on the basis of reported cycle length and the number of days since the onset of their most recent menstrual bleeding. RESULTS: The women who had an infection and who were in luteal phase had higher scores in Pathogen Disgust Domain than women in follicular phase. However, they did not differ in other assessments of disgust sensitivity. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide weak support for the CPH hypothesis. We found differences in disgust sensitivity in women who declared having an infection-participants in the luteal phase scored higher in the Pathogen Domain Scale of TDDS than women in the follicular phase. We suggest that future studies should measure levels of sex steroids and immunological markers of infection.

The aroma of arousal: Effects of menstrual cycle phase and women's sexual arousal state on men's responsiveness to women's body odor.

Humans can detect aspects of identity, reproductive status, and emotional state from body odor. Women have shown a distinctive neural response to male sexually-aroused (vs. resting) sweat. The present study examined olfactory sexual arousal contagion in men. Axial sweat was collected from naturally cycling women when they were sexually aroused and when they were resting, during both their follicular and their luteal phase. Men were exposed to both aroused and resting sweat in a state of low-level sexual arousal. Participants smelling follicular phase sweat reported greater subjective sexual arousal and an increased likelihood to self-disclose than men smelling luteal phase sweat. They also showed increased genital arousal but this effect was moderated by the arousal state of the women; genital responding was greater in men smelling sexually aroused (vs. resting) sweat for those exposed to luteal (but not those exposed to follicular) phase body odor. Being able to detect the scent of sexual arousal could enhance perceiver arousal and provide information on whether to approach someone for sexual interaction.

Mucosal Susceptibility to Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in the Proliferative and Secretory Phases of the Menstrual Cycle.

Factors underlying HIV acquisition in women remain incompletely understood. This study evaluated ex vivo mucosal HIV-1BaL infection (ectocervix, endocervix), T cell frequencies and phenotype (ectocervix, endocervix, peripheral blood), and HIV-1BaL-induced tissue immune responses (ectocervix) in the proliferative and secretory phases of the menstrual cycle using samples obtained from women undergoing hysterectomies. Tissue infectivity (number of productively infected explants) and infection level following 500 and/or fifty 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50) HIV-1BaL challenge were similar in the proliferative and secretory phases. Although not associated with infection outcomes, higher frequencies of HIV target CD4+α4ß7+ T cells, and stronger HIV-1BaL-induced proinflammatory responses were detected in ectocervix in the secretory versus proliferative phase. Independently of the cycle phase, serum E2 concentrations were inversely associated with ectocervical and endocervical tissue infection levels following high-dose 500 TCID50 HIV-1BaL challenge, with frequencies of CD4+α4ß7+ T cells in endocervix, and with HIV-induced interleukin (IL)2R and IL4 in ectocervix. Although serum P4 concentrations and P4/E2 ratios were neither associated with tissue infection level nor infectivity, high P4 concentrations and/or P4/E2 ratios correlated with high frequencies of CD4+α4ß7+ T cells in ectocervix, low frequencies of CD4+CD103+ blood T cells, low CD4+LFA-1+ T cells in endocervix, and high proinflammatory (IL1ß, IL17, tumor necrosis factor α) ectocervical tissue responses to HIV-1BaL. The data suggest an inhibitory effect of E2 on mucosal HIV infection, provide insights into potential mechanisms of E2-mediated anti-HIV activity, and highlight P4-associated immune changes in the mucosa.

Premenstrual Syndrome, Inflammatory Status, and Mood States in Soccer Players.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the relationship between the inflammatory profile and mood states in the different phases of the menstrual cycle in soccer players with and without premenstrual syndrome (PMS). METHODS: Data on the menstrual cycle and mood states were collected using the Daily Symptom Report and the Brunel Mood Scale. Cytokine and stress hormone concentrations were measured in urine by flow cytometry before and after a game in the luteal phase and in the follicular phase of one menstrual cycle. RESULTS: In all, 59.6% of the athletes had PMS. The PMS group showed higher concentrations of interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, and IL-8 than the athletes without PMS. After the game, IL-6 decreased in the follicular phase and the luteal phase. The tumor necrosis factor-α levels were higher in the group without PMS during the post-game follicular phase than before the game. In the PMS group, tension was higher in the follicular phase before the game and depression was higher in the pre-game luteal phase than in the group without PMS. The PMS group also presented a negative correlation between depression and IL-10 levels in the pre-game follicular phase. Finally, in the pre-game luteal phase were found positive correlations between growth hormone and IL-10. CONCLUSION: PMS influences the inflammatory condition related to mood states and stress hormones in female soccer players.

Emotional distress and tobacco demand during the menstrual cycle in female smokers.

Fluctuations in ovarian hormones over the menstrual cycle contribute to cigarette reward, however less is known about menstrual cycle influences on emotional distress in female smokers. We examined between-group differences in emotional distress (negative affectivity, emotion dysregulation, distress intolerance) and hypothetical cigarette purchasing (i.e. tobacco demand) among female smokers at three different menstrual stages. Women (n = 32) were non-treatment seeking daily smokers not on hormonal contraceptive, and were currently in their follicular (estradiol-dominant; n = 10), early-mid luteal (progesterone-dominant; n = 15), and late-luteal phase (decreasing progesterone/estradiol; n = 7). Effect sizes are reported given the small sample. Women in the late-luteal phase, relative to the follicular and early-mid luteal phases, reported higher levels of negative affectivity (d = 0.69), emotion dysregulation (d = 1.03), and distress intolerance (d = -0.86). Compared to the early-mid luteal and late-luteal phases, women in the follicular phase reported the highest hypothetical cigarette consumption when cigarettes were free (d = 0.71) and made the largest maximum expenditures on cigarettes (d = 0.74). Findings offer preliminary evidence that the late-luteal phase is characterized by emotional distress, and the follicular phase is associated with elevated tobacco demand, which if replicated could implicate ovarian hormones in emotion-focused smoking.

Effect of menstrual cycle on ethanol drinking in rhesus monkeys.

BACKGROUND: Sex differences in the abuse-related effects of alcohol have been demonstrated in the clinic and in preclinical animal models. Less is known about the influence of menstrual cycle phase on drinking. METHODS: In this study, we examined the relationship between menstrual cycle phase and intake of ethanol (EtOH) in five adult female rhesus monkeys. Subjects consumed a 4% EtOH solution in their home cage 6 h per day, 5 days per week and pressed a lever to receive food pellets during the drinking session. Menstrual cycle was determined with vaginal swabs 5-7 days per week. To facilitate comparison with previous studies, the cycle was divided three different ways for analysis. RESULTS: First, no significant difference was observed when EtOH intake was compared between phases defined as "follicular" (days 5-10) and "luteal" (19-24). Second, when the cycle was further divided into four phases [early follicular (days 1-7), late follicular (8-14), early luteal (15-21) and late luteal (22-next cycle)], significant differences were detected, with intake highest in phases that bracket menses and lowest in the late follicular phase. Finally, EtOH intake during "mid-cycle" (days 12-16) was significantly lower than during "menses" (days 1-5) and "late luteal" (last 5 days). Effect sizes were small to moderate, although absolute differences in EtOH intake (g/kg) were <15%. Food-maintained responding was not different across phases. CONCLUSIONS: Menstrual cycle has modest but statistically significant and selective effects on EtOH drinking, with higher EtOH intake observed in the peri-menstrual period compared to the middle of the cycle.

Effects of sex and menstrual cycle phase on cardiac response and alpha- amylase levels in psychosocial stress.

The impact of sex and the menstrual cycle phase on the autonomic response to psychosocial stress remains controversial. This study explored autonomic nervous system activity through salivary alpha-amylase, heart rate, and heart rate variability responses to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) in healthy young people. The sample was composed of 25 men, 26 women in the luteal phase, and 25 women in the follicular phase, from 18 to 25 years of age. Participants were exposed to the TSST or a control condition. The results indicate that women in their follicular phase showed a blunted alpha-amylase response to stress compared to men and women in the luteal phase. In addition, men showed higher sympatho-vagal activity in the stress condition compared to the two groups of women. These results confirm that sex and the menstrual cycle phase are potential modulators of autonomic nervous system reactivity to psychosocial stress.

Women with high estradiol status are protected against declarative memory impairment by pre-learning stress.

Stress is a potent modulator of learning and memory. Factors contributing to whether stress aids or impairs memory are timing of the stressor, memory stage, form of memory studied, and sex of the subjects. The female sex hormone 17-beta-estradiol (E2) has widespread effects in the brain and affects hippocampus-dependent memory in animals. In humans, the interaction between stress effects and E2 has not been widely studied. We report data from a healthy sample divided into 3 hormone-status groups: free-cycling women in the early follicular phase (EF: low E2, low progesterone [P4]), or during midcycle (MC: high E2, low P4), and men. Participants within each hormone-status group were randomly assigned to a psychosocial stressor or a control treatment 37 min before encoding a short story of neutral content. We found a Hormone status × Stress × Time (immediate, 35-min, 24-h delayed recall) interaction. Irrespective of time, hormone status mattered only after stress treatment: stressed early follicular women had poorer recall compared to stressed men and midcycle women. Only in the early follicular group, recall was negatively correlated with increases in salivary cortisol, but not with blood levels of E2 and P4. To uncover changes beyond immediate recall, we computed the individual percent change relative to immediate recall and repeated the analysis for these adjusted 35-min and 24-h data. Despite the lack of a stress effect in raw data, memory in stressed men was more stable over time (35-min and 24-h delay) than in unstressed men. In contrast, stressed EF-women (vs. control) recalled less at the 35-min and (as a trend) at the 24-h delay. Stressed MC-women (vs. control) showed less recall only at the 35-min delay while compensating this stress effect after a 24-h consolidation interval. Overall, results suggest that women in high-E2 midcycle phase could be less vulnerable to effects of pre-learning stress on declarative memory encoding and consolidation.

[CORRELATION BETWEEN HEAT PAIN THRESHOLD DEGREE AND TRPV1 RECEPTOR PROTEIN LEVEL OVER VARIOUS PHASES OF THE OVARIAN-MENSTRUAL CYCLE].

Numerous scientific studies demonstrating differences in pain sensitivity over various phases of the ovarian-menstrual cycle (OMC) in healthy women have been published in recent decades, but the basis for these differences is however still poorly understood. The aim of the current study was to assess the correlation between the heat pain threshold degree and the dynamics of TRPV1 (Transient receptor potential channeling subfamily V member1) receptor protein level, as well as aggression degree in healthy women in the follicular and luteal phases of OMC. An increased TRPV1 receptor protein level and a decreased thermal pain threshold were found in the luteal phase of the OMC. The study revealed a correlation of the progesterone level in the luteal phase with a degree of increase of TRPV1 level, as well as with the degree of decrease of heat pain threshold. The relationship between the degree of pain threshold, as well as TRPV1 level with follicle stimulating (FSH), luteinizing (LH) hormones and prolactin levels was not found. Also, there was no correlation between TRPV1 or heat pain threshold levels and aggression degree.

The not-so-bitter pill: Effects of combined oral contraceptives on peripheral physiological indicators of emotional reactivity.

Combined oral contraceptives (COC) are used by millions of women worldwide. Although findings are not entirely consistent, COC have been found to impact on brain function and, thus, to modulate affective processes. Here, we investigated electro-physiological responses to emotional stimuli in free cycling women in both the early follicular and late luteal phase as well as in COC users. Skin conductance response (SCR), startle reflex, corrugator and zygomaticus activity were assessed. COC users showed reduced overall startle magnitude and SCR amplitude, but heightened overall zygomaticus activity, although effect sizes were small. Thus, COC users displayed reduced physiological reactions indicating negative affect and enhanced physiological responses signifying positive affect. In free cycling women, endogenous 17ß-estradiol levels were associated with fear potentiated startle in both cycle phases as well as with SCR and zygomaticus activity during the follicular phase. Testosterone was associated with corrugator and zygomaticus activity during the luteal phase, while progesterone levels correlated with corrugator activity in the follicular phase. To the contrary, in COC users, endogenous hormones were not associated with electro-physiological measures. The results further underscore the importance of considering COC use in psychophysiological studies on emotional processing.

Effects of stress on women's preference for male facial masculinity and their endocrine correlates.

Women's preferences for masculinity in men's faces seem to vary across the menstrual cycle and are assumed to be strongest around ovulation. A number of hormones have been proposed to underlie these subtle cyclic shifts. Furthermore, mating preferences are context-dependent, and stress has been found to alter mate choice, both in animals and humans. Currently, the effects of stress on women's preference for masculinity remain unknown. To examine the hormonal basis and the impact of stress on facial masculinity preference, we tested for within-subject changes in 52 healthy young women who underwent the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) and the placebo-TSST in randomized order in the late follicular and mid-luteal phases of their menstrual cycle. Menstrual cycle phase and hormone levels were confirmed using estradiol, testosterone, progesterone, and cortisol analyses from saliva. Results show that women were more likely to be attracted to masculine-faced men right before ovulation than in the mid-luteal phase. Estradiol modulated this masculinity preference with high estradiol levels being related to stronger masculinity preference. When stressed however, women experienced a decrease in male facial masculinity preference. In line with these findings, the higher the cortisol increase to stress, the less were masculine faces preferred to more feminine faces. Mate choice is a central component of reproduction. The present results provide information about the effects of stress and hormonal influences on mate preferences in women.

The combined effects of menstrual cycle phase and acute stress on reward-related processing.

We investigated the combined effects of menstrual cycle phase and acute stress on reward-related processing, employing a monetary incentive delay task in combination with EEG. Females participated during late follicular and late luteal phases, performing in both control and stress conditions. We found evidence for both independent and interaction effects of phase and stress on reward-related brain activity. Phase modulated the sensitivity to feedback valence, with a stronger signaling of negative performance outcomes in the late follicular versus late luteal phase. In contrast, in the control condition, the late luteal versus late follicular phase was associated with a heightened sensitivity to reward condition, with enhanced performance monitoring in potential-reward versus no-reward trials. Stress decreased attentional preparation during reward anticipation, but increased the influence of reward condition on the processing of positive performance outcomes. We found no evidence for an increased sensitivity to stress during the late luteal versus late follicular phase.

Subtle persistent working memory and selective attention deficits in women with premenstrual syndrome.

As a recurrent, cyclical phenomenon, premenstrual syndrome (PMS) affects a significant proportion of women of the reproductive age, and leads to regular monthly days of functional impairment. Symptoms of PMS include somatic and psychological symptoms, such as headaches, sleep disturbances, social withdrawal and mood changes, during the late luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, which alleviate during the follicular phase. This study investigated neurocognitive functioning in women with moderate to severe PMS symptoms (n=13) compared to women with mild/no PMS (n=27) through administration of a battery of neuropsychological tests during the asymptomatic follicular phase of the menstrual cycle. Relative to women with mild/no PMS symptoms, women with moderate to severe PMS showed significantly poorer accuracy and more errors of omission on the N-0-back, as well as more errors of omission on the N-2-back task, indicating the presence of impairment in selective attention and working memory. This study provides evidence of persistent, subtle working memory and selective attention difficulties in those with moderate to severe PMS during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle.

Physiological Differences in the Follicular, Luteal, and Menstrual Phases in Healthy Women Determined by Electrovestibulography: Depression, Anxiety, or Other Associations?

Electrovestibulography (EVestG) recordings have been previously applied toward classifying and/or measuring the severity of several neurological disorders including depression with and without anxiety. This study's objectives were to: (1) extract EVestG features representing physiological differences of healthy women during their menses, and follicular and luteal phases of their menstrual cycle, and (2) compare these features to those observed in previous studies for depression with and without anxiety. Three EVestG recordings were made on 15 young healthy menstruating females during menses, and follicular and luteal phases. Three features were extracted, using the shape and timing of the detected spontaneously evoked vestibulo-acoustic field potentials. Using these features, a 3-way separation of the 3 phases was achieved, with a leave-one-out cross-validation, resulting in accuracy of > 72%. Using an EVestG shape feature, separation of the follicular and luteal phases was achieved with a leave-one-out cross-validation accuracy of > 93%. The mechanism of separation was not like that in previous depression analyses, and is postulated to be more akin to a form of anxiety and/or progesterone sensitivity.