A DIVA vaccine strain lacking RpoS and the secondary messenger c-di-GMP for protection against salmonellosis in pigs.

Salmonellosis is the second most common food-borne zoonosis in the European Union, with pigs being a major reservoir of this pathogen. Salmonella control in pig production requires multiple measures amongst which vaccination may be used to reduce subclinical carriage and shedding of prevalent serovars, such as Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. Live attenuated vaccine strains offer advantages in terms of enhancing cell mediated immunity and allowing inoculation by the oral route. However, main failures of these vaccines are the limited cross-protection achieved against heterologous serovars and interference with serological monitoring for infection. We have recently shown that an attenuated S. Enteritidis strain (ΔXIII) is protective against S. Typhimurium in a murine infection model. ΔXIII strain harbours 13 chromosomal deletions that make it unable to produce the sigma factor RpoS and synthesize cyclic-di-GMP (c-di-GMP). In this study, our objectives were to test the protective effects of ΔXIII strain in swine and to investigate if the use of ΔXIII permits the discrimination of vaccinated from infected pigs. Results show that oral vaccination of pre-weaned piglets with ΔXIII cross-protected against a challenge with S. Typhimurium by reducing faecal shedding and ileocaecal lymph nodes colonization, both at the time of weaning and slaughter. Vaccinated pigs showed neither faecal shedding nor tissue persistence of the vaccine strain at weaning, ensuring the absence of ΔXIII strain by the time of slaughter. Moreover, lack of the SEN4316 protein in ΔXIII strain allowed the development of a serological test that enabled the differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA).

Construction and Characterization of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis sigE fadD26 Unmarked Double Mutant as a Vaccine Candidate.

Despite the great increase in the understanding of the biology and pathogenesis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis achieved by the scientific community in recent decades, tuberculosis (TB) still represents one of the major threats to global human health. The only available vaccine (Mycobacterium bovis BCG) protects children from disseminated forms of TB but does not effectively protect adults from the respiratory form of the disease, making the development of new and more-efficacious vaccines against the pulmonary forms of TB a major goal for the improvement of global health. Among the different strategies being developed to reach this goal is the construction of attenuated strains more efficacious and safer than BCG. We recently showed that a sigE mutant of M. tuberculosis was more attenuated and more efficacious than BCG in a mouse model of infection. In this paper, we describe the construction and characterization of an M. tuberculosissigE fadD26 unmarked double mutant fulfilling the criteria of the Geneva Consensus for entering human clinical trials. The data presented suggest that this mutant is even more attenuated and slightly more efficacious than the previous sigE mutant in different mouse models of infection and is equivalent to BCG in a guinea pig model of infection.

Within-host evolution of bovine Staphylococcus aureus selects for a SigB-deficient pathotype characterized by reduced virulence but enhanced proteolytic activity and biofilm formation.

Staphylococcus aureus is a major cause of bovine mastitis, commonly leading to long-lasting, persistent and recurrent infections. Thereby, S. aureus constantly refines and permanently adapts to the bovine udder environment. In this work, we followed S. aureus within-host adaptation over the course of three months in a naturally infected dairy cattle with chronic, subclinical mastitis. Whole genome sequence analysis revealed a complete replacement of the initial predominant variant by another isogenic variant. We report for the first time within-host evolution towards a sigma factor SigB-deficient pathotype in S. aureus bovine mastitis, associated with a single nucleotide polymorphism in rsbU (G368A → G122D), a contributor to SigB-functionality. The emerged SigB-deficient pathotype exhibits a substantial shift to new phenotypic traits comprising strong proteolytic activity and poly-N-acetylglucosamine (PNAG)-based biofilm production. This possibly unlocks new nutritional resources and promotes immune evasion, presumably facilitating extracellular persistence within the host. Moreover, we observed an adaptation towards attenuated virulence using a mouse infection model. This study extends the role of sigma factor SigB in S. aureus pathogenesis, so far described to be required for intracellular persistence during chronic infections. Our findings suggest that S. aureus SigB-deficiency is an alternative mechanism for persistence and underpin the clinical relevance of staphylococcal SigB-deficient variants which are consistently isolated during human chronic infections.

The Salmonella Specific, σE-Regulated, STM1250 and AgsA, Function With the sHsps IbpA and IbpB, to Counter Oxidative Stress and Survive Macrophage Killing.

The host presents an array of environments which induce bacterial stress including changes in pH, antimicrobial compounds and reactive oxygen species. The bacterial envelope sits at the interface between the intracellular and extracellular environment and its maintenance is essential for Salmonella cell viability under a range of conditions, including during infection. In this study, we aimed to understand the contribution of the σH- and σE-regulated small heat shock proteins IbpA, IbpB, and AgsA and the putative σE-regulated stress response protein STM1250 to the Salmonella envelope stress response. Due to shared sequence identity, regulatory overlap, and the specificity of STM1250 and AgsA to Salmonella sp., we hypothesized that functional overlap exists between these four stress response proteins, which might afford a selective advantage during Salmonella exposure to stress. We present here new roles for three small heat shock proteins and a putative stress response protein in Salmonella that are not limited to heat shock. We have shown that, compared to WT, a quadruple mutant is significantly more sensitive to hydrogen peroxide, has a lower minimum bactericidal concentration to the cationic antimicrobial peptide polymyxin B, and is attenuated in macrophages.

Mycobacterial SigA and SigB Cotranscribe Essential Housekeeping Genes during Exponential Growth.

Mycobacterial σB belongs to the group II family of sigma factors, which are widely considered to transcribe genes required for stationary-phase survival and the response to stress. Here we explored the mechanism underlying the observed hypersensitivity of ΔsigB deletion mutants of Mycobacteriumsmegmatis, M. abscessus, and M. tuberculosis to rifampin (RIF) and uncovered an additional constitutive role of σB during exponential growth of mycobacteria that complements the function of the primary sigma factor, σA Using chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-Seq), we show that during exponential phase, σB binds to over 200 promoter regions, including those driving expression of essential housekeeping genes, like the rRNA gene. ChIP-Seq of ectopically expressed σA-FLAG demonstrated that at least 61 promoter sites are recognized by both σA and σB These results together suggest that RNA polymerase holoenzymes containing either σA or σB transcribe housekeeping genes in exponentially growing mycobacteria. The RIF sensitivity of the ΔsigB mutant possibly reflects a decrease in the effective housekeeping holoenzyme pool, which results in susceptibility of the mutant to lower doses of RIF. Consistent with this model, overexpression of σA restores the RIF tolerance of the ΔsigB mutant to that of the wild type, concomitantly ruling out a specialized role of σB in RIF tolerance. Although the properties of mycobacterial σB parallel those of Escherichiacoli σ38 in its ability to transcribe a subset of housekeeping genes, σB presents a clear departure from the E. coli paradigm, wherein the cellular levels of σ38 are tightly controlled during exponential growth, such that the transcription of housekeeping genes is initiated exclusively by a holoenzyme containing σ70 (E.σ70).IMPORTANCE All mycobacteria encode a group II sigma factor, σB, closely related to the group I principal housekeeping sigma factor, σA Group II sigma factors are widely believed to play specialized roles in the general stress response and stationary-phase transition in the bacteria that encode them. Contrary to this widely accepted view, we show an additional housekeeping function of σB that complements the function of σA in logarithmically growing cells. These findings implicate a novel and dynamic partnership between σA and σB in maintaining the expression of housekeeping genes in mycobacteria and can perhaps be extended to other bacterial species that possess multiple group II sigma factors.

σ54 (σL) plays a central role in carbon metabolism in the industrially relevant Clostridium beijerinckii.

The solventogenic C. beijerinckii DSM 6423, a microorganism that naturally produces isopropanol and butanol, was previously modified by random mutagenesis. In this work, one of the resulting mutants was characterized. This strain, selected with allyl alcohol and designated as the AA mutant, shows a dominant production of acids, a severely diminished butanol synthesis capacity, and produces acetone instead of isopropanol. Interestingly, this solvent-deficient strain was also found to have a limited consumption of two carbohydrates and to be still able to form spores, highlighting its particular phenotype. Sequencing of the AA mutant revealed point mutations in several genes including CIBE_0767 (sigL), which encodes the σ54 sigma factor. Complementation with wild-type sigL fully restored solvent production and sugar assimilation and RT-qPCR analyses revealed its transcriptional control of several genes related to solventogensis, demonstrating the central role of σ54 in C. beijerinckii DSM 6423. Comparative genomics analysis suggested that this function is conserved at the species level, and this hypothesis was further confirmed through the deletion of sigL in the model strain C. beijerinckii NCIMB 8052.

Coxiella burnetii RpoS Regulates Genes Involved in Morphological Differentiation and Intracellular Growth.

Coxiella burnetii, the etiological agent of Q fever, undergoes a unique biphasic developmental cycle where bacteria transition from a replicating (exponential-phase) large cell variant (LCV) form to a nonreplicating (stationary-phase) small cell variant (SCV) form. The alternative sigma factor RpoS is an essential regulator of stress responses and stationary-phase physiology in several bacterial species, including Legionella pneumophila, which has a developmental cycle superficially similar to that of C. burnetii Here, we used a C. burnetii ΔrpoS mutant to define the role of RpoS in intracellular growth and SCV development. Growth yields following infection of Vero epithelial cells or THP-1 macrophage-like cells with the rpoS mutant in the SCV form, but not the LCV form, were significantly lower than that of wild-type bacteria. RNA sequencing and whole-cell mass spectrometry of the C. burnetii ΔrpoS mutant revealed that a substantial portion of the C. burnetii genome is regulated by RpoS during SCV development. Regulated genes include those involved in stress responses, arginine transport, peptidoglycan remodeling, and synthesis of the SCV-specific protein ScvA. Genes comprising the dot/icm locus, responsible for production of the Dot/Icm type 4B secretion system, were also dysregulated in the rpoS mutant. These data were corroborated with independent assays demonstrating that the C. burnetii ΔrpoS strain has increased sensitivity to hydrogen peroxide and carbenicillin and a thinner cell wall/outer membrane complex. Collectively, these results demonstrate that RpoS is an important regulator of genes involved in C. burnetii SCV development and intracellular growth.IMPORTANCE The Q fever bacterium Coxiella burnetii has spore-like environmental stability, a characteristic that contributes to its designation as a potential bioweapon. Stability is likely conferred by a highly resistant, small cell variant (SCV) stationary-phase form that arises during a biphasic developmental cycle. Here, we define the role of the alternative sigma factor RpoS in regulating genes associated with SCV development. Genes involved in stress responses, amino acid transport, cell wall remodeling, and type 4B effector secretion were dysregulated in the rpoS mutant. Cellular impairments included defects in intracellular growth, cell wall structure, and resistance to oxidants. These results support RpoS as a central regulator of the Coxiella developmental cycle and identify developmentally regulated genes involved in morphological differentiation.

PsrA Regulator Connects Cell Physiology and Class 1 Integron Integrase Gene Expression Through the Regulation of lexA Gene Expression in Pseudomonas spp.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which is a clinically important representative of Pseudomonas spp., has been recognized as causative agent of severe nosocomial infections worldwide. An increase in antibiotic resistance of P. aeruginosa clinical strains could be attributed to their capacity to acquire resistance through mobile genetic elements such as mobile integrons that are present in one-half of multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa strains. Mobile class 1 integrons are recognized as genetic elements involved in the rapid dissemination of multiple genes encoding for antibiotic resistance. The LexA protein is a major repressor of integrase transcription, but differences in transcription regulation among bacterial species have also been noted. In this study, the promoter activity of class 1 integron integrase gene (intI1) and its variant lacking the LexA binding site in Pseudomonas putida WCS358 wild type, ΔrpoS and ΔpsrA was analysed. The results show that the activity of the intI1 gene promoter decreased in the rpoS and psrA mutants in the stationary phase of growth compared to the wild type, which indicates the role of RpoS and PsrA proteins in the positive regulation of integrase transcription. Additionally, it was determined that the activity of the lexA gene promoter decreased in ΔrpoS and ΔpsrA, and thus, we propose that PsrA indirectly regulates the intI1 gene promoter activity through regulation of lexA gene expression in co-operation with some additional regulators. In this study, intI1 gene expression was shown to be controlled by two major stress response (SOS and RpoS) regulons, which indicates that integrase has evolved to use both systems to sense the cell status.

Regulation of Biofilm Aging and Dispersal in Bacillus subtilis by the Alternative Sigma Factor SigB.

Bacterial biofilms are important in natural settings, biotechnology, and medicine. However, regulation of biofilm development and its persistence in different niches is complex and only partially understood. One key step during the biofilm life cycle is dispersal, when motile cells abandon the mature biofilm to spread out and colonize new niches. Here, we show that in the model bacterium Bacillus subtilis the general stress transcription factor SigB is essential for halting detrimental overgrowth of mature biofilm and for triggering dispersal when nutrients become limited. Specifically, SigB-deficient biofilms were larger than wild-type biofilms but exhibited accelerated cell death, significantly greater sensitivity to different stresses, and reduced dispersal. Interestingly, the signal detected by SigB to limit biofilm growth was transduced through the RsbP-dependent metabolic arm of the SigB regulatory cascade, which in turn positively controlled expression of SinR, the master regulator of biofilm formation and cell motility. This novel SigB-SinR regulatory circuit might be important in controlling the fitness of biofilms (either beneficial or harmful) in diverse environments.IMPORTANCE Biofilms are crucial for bacterial survival, adaptation, and dissemination in natural, industrial, and medical systems. Sessile cells embedded in the self-produced extracellular matrix of the biofilm benefit from a division of labor and are protected from environmental insults. However, as the biofilm ages, cells become stressed because of overcrowding, starvation, and accumulation of waste products. How does the sessile biofilm community sense and respond to stressful conditions? Here, we show that in Bacillus subtilis, the transcription factors SigB and SinR control whether cells remain in or leave a biofilm when metabolic conditions become unfavorable. This novel SigB-SinR regulatory circuit might be important for controlling the fitness of biofilms (either beneficial or harmful) in diverse environments.

The absence of SigX results in impaired carbon metabolism and membrane fluidity in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

In Pseudomonas aeruginosa, SigX is an extra-cytoplasmic function σ factor that belongs to the cell wall stress response network. In previous studies, we made the puzzling observation that sigX mutant growth was severely affected in rich lysogeny broth (LB) but not in minimal medium. Here, through comparative transcriptomic and proteomic analysis, we show that the absence of SigX results in dysregulation of genes, whose products are mainly involved in transport, carbon and energy metabolisms. Production of most of these genes is controlled by carbon catabolite repression (CCR), a key regulatory system than ensures preferential carbon source uptake and utilization, substrate prioritization and metabolism. The strong CCR response elicited in LB was lowered in a sigX mutant, suggesting altered nutrient uptake. Since the absence of SigX affects membrane composition and fluidity, we suspected membrane changes to cause such phenotype. The detergent polysorbate 80 (PS80) can moderately destabilize the envelope resulting in non-specific increased nutrient intake. Remarkably, growth, membrane fluidity and expression of dysregulated genes in the sigX mutant strain were restored in LB supplemented with PS80. Altogether, these data suggest that SigX is indirectly involved in CCR regulation, possibly via its effects on membrane integrity and fluidity.

The Alternative Sigma Factors SigE and SigB Are Involved in Tolerance and Persistence to Antitubercular Drugs.

The emergence and spread of drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains possibly threaten our ability to treat this disease in the future. Even though two new antitubercular drugs have recently been introduced, there is still the need to design new molecules whose mechanisms of action could reduce the length of treatment. We show that two alternative sigma factors of M. tuberculosis (SigE and SigB) have a major role in determining the level of basal resistance to several drugs and the amount of persisters surviving long-duration drug treatment. We also demonstrate that ethambutol, a bacteriostatic drug, is highly bactericidal for M. tuberculosis mutants missing either SigE or SigB. We suggest that molecules able to interfere with the activity of SigE or SigB not only could reduce M. tuberculosis virulence in vivo but also could boost the effect of other drugs by increasing the sensitivity of the organism and reducing the number of persisters able to escape killing.

ATHB17 enhances stress tolerance by coordinating photosynthesis associated nuclear gene and ATSIG5 expression in response to abiotic stress.

Photosynthesis is sensitive to environmental stress and must be efficiently modulated in response to abiotic stress. However, the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. Here we report that ARABIDOPSIS THALIANA HOMEOBOX 17 (ATHB17), an Arabidopsis HD-Zip transcription factor, regulated the expression of a number of photosynthesis associated nuclear genes (PhANGs) involved in the light reaction and ATSIG5 in response to abiotic stress. ATHB17 was responsive to ABA and multiple stress treatments. ATHB17-overexpressing plants displayed enhanced stress tolerance, whereas its knockout mutant was more sensitive compared to the wild type. Through RNA-seq and quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis, we found that ATHB17 did not affect the expression of many known stress-responsive marker genes. Interestingly, we found that ATHB17 down-regulated many PhANGs and could directly modulate the expression of several PhANGs by binding to their promoters. Moreover, we identified ATSIG5, encoding a plastid sigma factor, as one of the target genes of ATHB17. Loss of ATSIG5 reduced salt tolerance while overexpression of ATSIG5 enhanced salt tolerance, similar to that of ATHB17. ATHB17 can positively modulate the expression of many plastid encoded genes (PEGs) through regulation of ATSIG5. Taken together, our results suggest that ATHB17 may play an important role in protecting plants by adjusting expression of PhANGs and PEGs in response to abiotic stresses.

MerR and ChrR mediate blue light induced photo-oxidative stress response at the transcriptional level in Vibrio cholerae.

Blue light (BL) is a major environmental factor that affects the physiology, behavior, and infectivity of bacteria as it contributes to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) while increasing photo-oxidative stress in cells. However, precise photo-oxidative response mechanism in non-phototrophic bacteria is yet to be elucidated. In this study, we investigated the effect of BL in Vibrio cholerae by using genetics and transcriptome profiling. Genome-wide analysis revealed that transcription of 6.3% of V. cholerae genes were regulated by BL. We further showed that BL enhances ROS production, which is generated through the oxidative phosphorylation. To understand signaling mechanisms, we generated several knockouts and analyzed their transcriptome under BL exposure. Studies with a double-knockout confirm an anti-sigma factor (ChrR) and putative metalloregulatory-like protein (MerR) are responsible for the genome-wide regulation to BL response in V. cholerae. Collectively, these results demonstrate that MerR-like proteins, in addition to ChrR, are required for V. cholerae to mount an appropriate response against photo-oxidative stress induced by BL. Outside its natural host, V. cholerae can survive for extended periods in natural aquatic environments. Therefore, the regulation of light response for V. cholerae may be a critical cellular process for its survival in these environments.

Brucella abortus ΔrpoE1 confers protective immunity against wild type challenge in a mouse model of brucellosis.

The Brucella abortus general stress response (GSR) system regulates activity of the alternative sigma factor, σ(E1), which controls transcription of approximately 100 genes and is required for persistence in a BALB/c mouse chronic infection model. We evaluated the host response to infection by a B. abortus strain lacking σ(E1) (ΔrpoE1), and identified pathological and immunological features that distinguish ΔrpoE1-infected mice from wild-type (WT), and that correspond with clearance of ΔrpoE1 from the host. ΔrpoE1 infection was indistinguishable from WT in terms of splenic bacterial burden, inflammation and histopathology up to 6weeks post-infection. However, Brucella-specific serum IgG levels in ΔrpoE1-infected mice were 5 times higher than WT by 4weeks post-infection, and remained significantly higher throughout the course of a 12-week infection. Total IgG and Brucella-specific IgG levels peaked strongly in ΔrpoE1-infected mice at 6weeks, which correlated with reduced splenomegaly and bacterial burden relative to WT-infected mice. Given the difference in immune response to infection with wild-type and ΔrpoE1, we tested whether ΔrpoE1 confers protective immunity to wild-type challenge. Mice immunized with ΔrpoE1 completely resisted WT infection and had significantly higher serum titers of Brucella-specific IgG, IgG2a and IFN-γ after WT challenge relative to age-matched naïve mice. We conclude that immunization of BALB/c mice with the B. abortus GSR pathway mutant, ΔrpoE1, elicits an adaptive immune response that confers significant protective immunity against WT infection.

Reduced Protein Synthesis Fidelity Inhibits Flagellar Biosynthesis and Motility.

Accurate translation of the genetic information from DNA to protein is maintained by multiple quality control steps from bacteria to mammals. Genetic and environmental alterations have been shown to compromise translational quality control and reduce fidelity during protein synthesis. The physiological impact of increased translational errors is not fully understood. While generally considered harmful, translational errors have recently been shown to benefit cells under certain stress conditions. In this work, we describe a novel regulatory pathway in which reduced translational fidelity downregulates expression of flagellar genes and suppresses bacterial motility. Electron microscopy imaging shows that the error-prone Escherichia coli strain lacks mature flagella. Further genetic analyses reveal that translational errors upregulate expression of a small RNA DsrA through enhancing its transcription, and deleting DsrA from the error-prone strain restores motility. DsrA regulates expression of H-NS and RpoS, both of which regulate flagellar genes. We demonstrate that an increased level of DsrA in the error-prone strain suppresses motility through the H-NS pathway. Our work suggests that bacteria are capable of switching on and off the flagellar system by altering translational fidelity, which may serve as a previously unknown mechanism to improve fitness in response to environmental cues.

Superior protection elicited by live-attenuated vaccines in the murine model of paratuberculosis.

Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (M. paratuberculosis) causes Johne's disease, a chronic enteric infection in ruminants with severe economic impact on the dairy industry in the USA and worldwide. Currently, available vaccines have limited protective efficacy against disease progression and does not prevent spread of the infection among animals. Because of their ability to elicit wide-spectrum immune responses, we adopted a live-attenuated vaccine approach based on a sigH knock-out strain of M. paratuberculosis (ΔsigH). Earlier analysis of the ΔsigH mutant in mice indicated their inadequate ability to colonize host tissues, unlike the isogenic wild-type strain, validating the role of this sigma factor in M. paratuberculosis virulence. In the present study, we evaluated the performance of the ΔsigH mutant compared to inactivated vaccine constructs in a vaccine/challenge model of murine paratuberculosis. The presented analysis indicated that ΔsigH mutant with or without QuilA adjuvant is capable of eliciting strong immune responses (such as interferon gamma-γ, IFN-γ) suggesting their immunogenicity and ability to potentially initiate effective vaccine-induced immunity. Following a challenge with virulent strains of M. paratuberculosis, ΔsigH conferred protective immunity as indicated by the reduced bacterial burden accompanied with reduced lesions in main body organs (liver, spleen and intestine) usually infected with M. paratuberculosis. More importantly, our data indicated better ability of the ΔsigH vaccine to confer protection compared to the inactivated vaccine constructs even with the presence of oil-adjuvant. Overall, our approach provides a rational basis for using live-attenuated mutant strains to develop improved vaccines that elicit robust immunity against this chronic infection.

Systems analysis of methylerythritol-phosphate pathway flux in E. coli: insights into the role of oxidative stress and the validity of lycopene as an isoprenoid reporter metabolite.

BACKGROUND: High-throughput screening methods assume that the output measured is representative of changes in metabolic flux toward the desired product and is not affected by secondary phenotypes. However, metabolic engineering can result in unintended phenotypes that may go unnoticed in initial screening. The red pigment lycopene, a carotenoid with antioxidant properties, has been used as a reporter of isoprenoid pathway flux in metabolic engineering for over a decade. Lycopene production is known to vary between wild-type Escherichia coli hosts, but the reasons behind this variation have never been fully elucidated. RESULTS: In an examination of six E. coli strains we observed that strains also differ in their capacity for increased lycopene production in response to metabolic engineering. A combination of genetic complementation, quantitative SWATH proteomics, and biochemical analysis in closely-related strains was used to examine the mechanistic reasons for variation in lycopene accumulation. This study revealed that rpoS, a gene previously identified in lycopene production association studies, exerts its effect on lycopene accumulation not through modulation of pathway flux, but through alteration of cellular oxidative status. Specifically, absence of rpoS results in increased accumulation of reactive oxygen species during late log and stationary phases. This change in cellular redox has no effect on isoprenoid pathway flux, despite the presence of oxygen-sensitive iron-sulphur cluster enzymes and the heavy redox requirements of the methylerythritol phosphate pathway. Instead, decreased cellular lycopene in the ΔrpoS strain is caused by degradation of lycopene in the presence of excess reactive oxygen species. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that lycopene is not a reliable indicator of isoprenoid pathway flux in the presence of oxidative stress, and suggest that caution should be exercised when using lycopene as a screening tool in genome-wide metabolic engineering studies. More extensive use of systems biology for strain analysis will help elucidate such unpredictable side-effects in metabolic engineering projects.

Use of Ensure® nutrition shakes as an alternative formulation method for live recombinant Attenuated Salmonella Typhi vaccines.

BACKGROUND: To be effective, orally administered live Salmonella vaccines must first survive their encounter with the low pH environment of the stomach. To enhance survival, an antacid is often given to neutralize the acidic environment of the stomach just prior to or concomitant with administration of the vaccine. One drawback of this approach, from the perspective of the clinical trial volunteer, is that the taste of a bicarbonate-based acid neutralization system can be unpleasant. Thus, we explored an alternative method that would be at least as effective as bicarbonate and with a potentially more acceptable taste. Because ingestion of protein can rapidly buffer stomach pH, we examined the possibility that the protein-rich Ensure® Nutrition shakes would be effective alternatives to bicarbonate. RESULTS: We tested one Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and three Salmonella Typhi vaccine strains and found that all strains survived equally well when incubated in either Ensure® or bicarbonate. In a low gastric pH mouse model, Ensure® worked as well or better than bicarbonate to enhance survival through the intestinal tract, although neither agent enhanced the survival of the S. Typhi test strain possessing a rpoS mutation. CONCLUSIONS: Our data show that a protein-rich drink such as Ensure® Nutrition shakes can serve as an alternative to bicarbonate for reducing gastric pH prior to administration of a live Salmonella vaccine.

New aspects of RpoE in uropathogenic Proteus mirabilis.

Proteus mirabilis is a common human pathogen causing recurrent or persistent urinary tract infections (UTIs). The underlying mechanisms for P. mirabilis to establish UTIs are not fully elucidated. In this study, we showed that loss of the sigma factor E (RpoE), mediating extracytoplasmic stress responses, decreased fimbria expression, survival in macrophages, cell invasion, and colonization in mice but increased the interleukin-8 (IL-8) expression of urothelial cells and swarming motility. This is the first study to demonstrate that RpoE modulated expression of MR/P fimbriae by regulating mrpI, a gene encoding a recombinase controlling the orientation of MR/P fimbria promoter. By real-time reverse transcription-PCR, we found that the IL-8 mRNA amount of urothelial cells was induced significantly by lipopolysaccharides extracted from rpoE mutant but not from the wild type. These RpoE-associated virulence factors should be coordinately expressed to enhance the fitness of P. mirabilis in the host, including the avoidance of immune attacks. Accordingly, rpoE mutant-infected mice displayed more immune cell infiltration in bladders and kidneys during early stages of infection, and the rpoE mutant had a dramatically impaired ability of colonization. Moreover, it is noteworthy that urea (the major component in urine) and polymyxin B (a cationic antimicrobial peptide) can induce expression of rpoE by the reporter assay, suggesting that RpoE might be activated in the urinary tract. Altogether, our results indicate that RpoE is important in sensing environmental cues of the urinary tract and subsequently triggering the expression of virulence factors, which are associated with the fitness of P. mirabilis, to build up a UTI.

Enhanced colonization of rpoS-deficient Escherichia coli cells on solid surfaces by reinforced csgA gene expression.

Scanning electron microscopy revealed that the rpoS-deficient cells of E. coli K-12 BW25113 (ΔrpoS) increased the number of flagella on the cell surfaces. However, the quantitative analysis of cell colonization showed that the increased number of flagella on ΔrpoS cell surfaces did not cause the enhancement of cell colonization on the surfaces of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene (PP) and polystyrene (PS) after 24 h of incubation at 37℃. To facilitate the enhanced expression of curli, the csgA gene was introduced into the ΔrpoS cells. The transformed cells rich in flagella and curli on the cell surfaces were found to make colonies 2-3 times larger than both the wild type and ΔrpoS cells on the PVC, PP and PS surfaces at 37℃. It was thus verified that the reinforcement of csgA gene in the ΔrpoS cells induced the enhanced colonization on the solid surfaces with the increased flagellum and curli expressions.