Proto-Endocrinological Theories of Masculinity/Femininity (1490-1904).

From the mid-seventeenth century, resorption of a testicular "ferment" and resorption of some part of the semen constituted reputable accounts of secondary sexual characteristics. Only in the early twentieth century was the latter, "recrementitious secretion" theory, explicitly considered superseded by one of internal secretion, an advance ushering in the hormone era. A reconstruction of these proto-endocrinological concepts is offered onward from the first, 1490 print edition of Galen's On Semen. Early modern physicians picking up from Galen deliberated widely on the medium and pathway of male and female testicular influences on "the entire body," including the mind, causing "femininity" and "masculinity" in physical, mental-temperamental, and behavioral terms. A switch is discernible from "heat and strength" (Galen) to blood-borne "virility" or testicular vapor (such as proposed in 1564 by Tomás Rodrigues da Veiga), to iatrochemical postulations of a "seminal ferment" (suggested in the late 1650s, perhaps independently, by Thomas Willis at Oxford and Lambert van Velthuysen in Utrecht), finally to a "seminal recrement" or "reabsorbed semen" concept soon after (emergent in the posthumous work of Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, among others). During the late eighteenth century, mounting controversy surrounded both the very idea of that concept and the involved anatomical pathways, informed by multiple experiments.

A case for a "middle-way career" in the history of psychology: The work of pioneering psychoanalyst Marjorie Brierley in early 20th century Britain.

Historians often focus on the most famous or radical, prolific theoreticians among psychoanalysts, thereby at times reproducing the self-centered biases of their subjects rather than providing a useful critique. I offer instead a revisionist view of this history of psychology, arguing that we should pay more attention to a variety of middle-way actors who combined diverse forms of often-dismissed labor that included practice, editorial, and administrative work, and who tried to find a less rigid theoretical middle ground to toil. These middle-way actors were often women and although scholars have commented on the prominence of women in the early societies of psychoanalysis, we have not conducted adequate research on all these early active members and their roles. This article presents an example of such an actor, Marjorie Brierley (1893-1984), one of the first women psychoanalysts in Britain who made unique, yet unresearched, varied contributions-intellectual and non-intellectual-to the famous interwar debate on femininity and to organizational and clinical work. If we are to fully understand the establishment, cultivation, and maintenance of the flourishing field of psychoanalysis in the early 20th century, we must account for the work of women like her. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Why femme stories matter: Constructing femme theory through historical femme life writing.

We argue that historical femme life writing forms a rich resource for femme theory that contributes to, challenges, and extends contemporary academic femme literature. We focus on the experiences of femmes during the second-wave feminist movement, specifically within the context of 1970s and 1980s U.S. lesbian feminism. The texts we examine include My Dangerous Desires by Amber Hollibaugh (2000), A Restricted Country by Joan Nestle (1987), Minnie Bruce Pratt's (1995) S/he, and selections from The Persistent Desire: A Femme-Butch Reader, edited by Nestle (1992). Informed by Clare Hemmings' (2011) and Victoria Hesford's (2013) critiques that past feminisms are often retold using reductive narratives, we (re)read this femme life writing to foreground the ways in which femmes have historically troubled and resisted monolithic accounts of lesbian feminism, lesbian identities, femininity, and sexuality. By centering queer feminine voices from this period to highlight major themes of this life writing, and drawing on Andi Schwartz's (2018) positioning of femme cultural production as a basis for theory, we argue that earlier iterations of queer femininities are relevant to and important for contemporary femme theory. Ultimately, we analyze what historical femme life writing reveals about the place of femininity within the lesbian and feminist communities of their time, how these dynamics inform current perceptions of queer and femme politics, and how femmes resist their cultural and critical marginalization.

[Physical culture, bodies and sexualities in the journal Cultura Sexual y Física, 1937-1941]. / Cultura física, cuerpos y sexualidades en la revista Cultura Sexual y Física, 1937-1941.

This study analyzes the different meanings produced, transmitted and circulated by the journal Cultura Sexual y Física (1937-1941) about sexualities, bodies, desires and forms of otherness from the standpoint of and based on physical culture. In the journal, which was published in Buenos Aires but had an international readership, we examine these issues from a gender perspective via critical discursive analysis in order to demonstrate the nuances, continuities and departure points with regard to the dominant discourse. Hence, we show the polemics triggered by this publication and the attacks on it by conservative sectors, which led to it being banned.

En este trabajo se analizan los distintos sentidos que produjo, transmitió y puso en circulación la revista Cultura Sexual y Física (1937-1941) respecto de las sexualidades, los cuerpos, los deseos y las otredades desde y a partir del campo de la cultura física. Editada en Buenos Aires, pero con una circulación a escala internacional, examinaremos aquellos tópicos desde una perspectiva de género y a través del análisis crítico del discurso para dar cuenta de los matices, continuidades e inflexiones discursivas respecto del discurso dominante. En este sentido, señalaremos las polémicas que suscitó la publicación y los ataques recibidos por parte de sectores conservadores que llevaron a la prohibición de la revista.

Cultura física, cuerpos y sexualidades en la revista cultura sexual y física, 1937-1941 / Physical culture, bodies and sexualities in the journal cultura sexual y física, 1937-1941

Resumen En este trabajo se analizan los distintos sentidos que produjo, transmitió y puso en circulación la revista Cultura Sexual y Física (1937-1941) respecto de las sexualidades, los cuerpos, los deseos y las otredades desde y a partir del campo de la cultura física. Editada en Buenos Aires, pero con una circulación a escala internacional, examinaremos aquellos tópicos desde una perspectiva de género y a través del análisis crítico del discurso para dar cuenta de los matices, continuidades e inflexiones discursivas respecto del discurso dominante. En este sentido, señalaremos las polémicas que suscitó la publicación y los ataques recibidos por parte de sectores conservadores que llevaron a la prohibición de la revista.

Abstract This study analyzes the different meanings produced, transmitted and circulated by the journal Cultura Sexual y Física (1937-1941) about sexualities, bodies, desires and forms of otherness from the standpoint of and based on physical culture. In the journal, which was published in Buenos Aires but had an international readership, we examine these issues from a gender perspective via critical discursive analysis in order to demonstrate the nuances, continuities and departure points with regard to the dominant discourse. Hence, we show the polemics triggered by this publication and the attacks on it by conservative sectors, which led to it being banned.

Gender stereotypes have changed: A cross-temporal meta-analysis of U.S. public opinion polls from 1946 to 2018.

This meta-analysis integrated 16 nationally representative U.S. public opinion polls on gender stereotypes (N = 30,093 adults), extending from 1946 to 2018, a span of seven decades that brought considerable change in gender relations, especially in women's roles. In polls inquiring about communion (e.g., affectionate, emotional), agency (e.g., ambitious, courageous), and competence (e.g., intelligent, creative), respondents indicated whether each trait is more true of women or men, or equally true of both. Women's relative advantage in communion increased over time, but men's relative advantage in agency showed no change. Belief in competence equality increased over time, along with belief in female superiority among those who indicated a sex difference in competence. Contemporary gender stereotypes thus convey substantial female advantage in communion and a smaller male advantage in agency but also gender equality in competence along with some female advantage. Interpretation emphasizes the origins of gender stereotypes in the social roles of women and men. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Masculinity, femininity, and leadership: Taking a closer look at the alpha female.

An extensive review and textual analysis of the academic and popular literature of the human alpha female was conducted to examine the social construction and expression of the alpha female identity in a small non-random sample of North American women (N = 398). This review revealed 2 predominant alpha female representations in the literature-one more masculine versus one more feminine-and 21 alpha female variables. In this sample of women, the "alpha female" was found to be a recognized socially constructed female identity. Univariate analysis revealed positive and highly significant differences in self-reported mean scores between alpha (N = 94) and non-alpha (N = 304) females for 10 variables including, masculine traits, leadership, strength, low introversion, self-esteem, life satisfaction, sexual experience, initiates sex, enjoys sex and playing a dominant role in sexual encounters, with alpha females scoring higher than non-alphas. The measure of masculine traits was identified as the only predictor of alpha female status as per the multiple regression model. Interestingly, both alpha and non-alpha women scored the same for the measure of feminine traits. Further, both groups scored higher for feminine traits than masculine traits. The results also revealed that neither social dominance nor sexual dominance were predictors of alpha female status which challenge academic and popularized representations of this identity. The results suggest that although the alpha female is often regarded as an exceptional and, at times, an exoticized form of femininity, like other femininities, her identity is marked by contradictions and tensions.

[Gender Norms and Expertise : Constructions of Gender in Psychiatrists' Legal Opinions in Imperial Germany, 1871-1914]. / Geschlechternormen und Expertise : Geschlechterkonstruktionen in psychiatrischen Gerichtsgutachten im Deutschen Kaiserreich 1871­1914.

This article focuses on notions of gender in psychiatrists' expert opinions written for lawsuits during the German Empire, 1871-1914. Four different narratives concerning gender can be identified in these testimonies. On the one hand, the reports describe women and men who did not conform to the gender stereotypes of the time. The psychiatrists found the non-conformist defendants to be of unsound mind. On the other hand, women and men who did conform to the gender stereotypes were also described. In those cases, however, "feminine" women were certified insane, whereas "masculine" men were accused of simulating a mental disease in order to avoid punishment. These findings strengthen basic assumptions of Feminist Epistemology by showing that first, psychiatric ideas of accountability were closely linked to the norm of "masculine" men and second, a double standard was used in assessing the soundness of minds of women and men respectively.

[Gender images in health education: a comparison between East and West Germany (1949-1990)]. / Geschlechterbilder in der Gesundheitsaufklärung im deutsch-deutschen Vergleich (1949-1990).

This essay takes a closer look at the shared traditions as well as separate developments in health education in both German states, based on the circulated gender images. Health education is a rewarding field of investigation because its materials not only convey information on the prevention of sickness or the cultivation of healthy lifestyles; they also--implicitly or explicitly--carry social key messages such as ideas regarding femininities and masculinities or the tasks and functions allocated to women and men within and outside the family. The fact, for instance, that women in East Germany were expected to be part of the labour force as early as the 1950 s, whereas their Western counterparts were expected to stay at home and look after the family, had an effect on health education. The question as to the normative images of femininity and masculinity is therefore at the centre of our inquiry. The sources used are health education publications and popular health magazines from both Germanies. Based on the parameters 'Home and Family', 'Work and Performance', 'Attractiveness and Outer Appearance', the ideas of femininity and masculinity, as portrayed in the health propaganda in East and West, are presented and compared. Analysis of these parameters shows that the gender images, while they coincided in some respects, also evolved in different ways in others, or that entirely different intentions were concealed behind the promotion of similar principles. Many of the guiding images discussed show how the two German states perceived each other. While there were attempts at dissociating from the other state entirely, there were also developments that seem to indicate that they referred to one another to a certain extent.

Alcohol and Femininity in Sweden c. 1830-1922: An Investigation of the Emergence of Separate Drinking Standards for Men and Women.

This paper discusses changing views about gender and drinking in Sweden c. 1830-1922. The author posits that the emergence of bourgeois morals in the 19th century were associated with a decline in the tolerance for female alcohol consumption, and also shows how the values, norms, and activities of the temperance movement interconnected with religion and notions of purity. Yet, in spite of hardening attitudes against women's drinking, alcohol remained integral in Swedish upper-class women's lives. The results are based on a qualitative study of Swedish women's diaries. The study was financed by the Swedish Research Council, 2009-2012. Study limitations are also noted.

Are women naturally devoted mothers? Fabre, Perrier, and Giard on maternal instinct in France under the Third Republic.

This paper examines some of the debates over maternal instinct in France under the Third Republic. It focuses on the work of three naturalists (Fabre, Perrier, and Giard) and shows how these scientists shaped, reinforced, or challenged feminine identities as well as a number of sexual social conventions making constant reference to the natural as their authority. This paper highlights these scientists' views on womanhood and maternity and their stances on contemporary feminist discourses as well as seeking to establish the extent to which these views and stances influenced their scientific discourses and practices. It also aims to demonstrate the interpenetration of science and policy, not only in terms of the transfer of political concepts into the scientific domain (and back again), but also as a joint construction process, which produced a new political and natural order in nineteenth century France.

Playing With "patriotic fire": women and football in the Antipodes during the Great War.

The revelation that women first played Australian Rules football during the period of the Great War is an important element in overall understandings of how both masculine and feminine ideals were challenged and redefined by sporting practices in a time of general social flux. This paper reveals that the genesis of the women's code was in Western Australia, where contests occurred as early as 1915. Three years later, with the war nearing its conclusion, the template of women's involvement in charity matches with strong military and patriotic overtones was adopted in the state of Victoria, the code's heartland. Investigations such as this one, indicative of the complex relationships between sport and gender during the First World War, offer scope for deeper comprehension of a much-studied military conflict, and point the way forward for those that bemoan the static agenda of research into women's football.

Stamina, speed and adventure: Australian women and competitive cycling in the 1890s.

The scholarship surrounding women's cycling in Australia during the 1890s is slim. However, a focus on female competitive cycling, just one of many diverse cycling activities that women pursued in this era, reveals a rich seam of information. Accordingly, this paper surveys endurance riding, adventure touring and racing, introducing new historical and biographical detail and highlighting the significance of competitive cycling for women in the late nineteenth century. The discussion shows that women's competitive cycling constituted a significant component of Australian cycling history, and helped to re-define women's identity in an era when feminine roles were in flux and the traditional gender order was being contested.

Reading photographic portraits of Australian women cyclists in the 1890s: from costume and cycle choices to constructions of feminine identity.

During the 1890s, in Australia and around the world, there was a convergence of the cycle, the camera and women. With the advent of the revolutionary safety bicycle, cycling had become a craze. At the same time, photographic technology had undergone changes that meant photographs were cheaper and more accessible. Women became avid consumers of both these new technologies; they became cyclists in unprecedented numbers for the first time, and they also became the popular subjects, and proud owners, of photographic portraits. These two trends converged, resulting in a proliferation of photographic portraits of women cyclists, many of which were published in newspapers and magazines. These bicycle portraits have now become a rich source for historians. More than just visually interesting artefacts, these photographic depictions of the Australian woman cyclist are important windows into the history of Australian women's cycling in the last decade of the nineteenth century. Bicycle portraits provide significant insights into the study of Australian women cyclists, from historical detail ranging from costume, bicycle and cycling activity choices to more complex understandings of the expression of feminine identity among Australian women cyclists in the 1890s.

Managing a massacre: savagery, civility, and gender in Moro Province in the wake of Bud Dajo.

This article examines the delicate ideological maneuverings that shaped American colonial constructions of savagery, civility, and gender in the wake of the Bud Dajo massacre in the Philippines's Muslim south in 1906. It looks particularly at shifting notions of femininity and masculinity as these related to episodes of violence and colonial control. The article concludes that, while the Bud Dajo massacre was a terrible black mark on the American military's record in Mindanao and Sulu, colonial officials ultimately used the event to positively affirm existing discourses of power and justification, which helped to sustain and guide military rule in the Muslim south for another seven years.

Tackling femininity: the heterosexual paradigm and women's soccer in South Africa.

Sport is a social institution that perpetuates gendered ideologies in the wider society through appealing to discourses of the naturalness of men's privilege and domination in society. Heteronormativity regulates the roles, behaviours, appearances and sexualities of, and relationships between and among, women and men. Moreover, heteronormative discourses normalise a particular relationship between sex, gender and sexuality that posits woman/feminine/heterosexual (and man/masculine/heterosexual) as a natural order from which variance is considered a punishable deviance. This paper outlines the effects of heteronormative discourses in the lives of women footballers in South Africa, through drawing on interviews with a wide range of women footballers. The paper shows how heteronormative discourses nurture homophobic attitudes that serve to regulate the appearances and performances of South African women.