Zwitterionic Character and Lipid Composition Determine the Behaviour of Glycosylphosphatidylinositol Fragments in Monolayers.

Glycosylphosphatidylinositols (GPIs) are complex glycolipids found in free form or anchoring proteins to the outer leaflet of the cell membrane in eukaryotes. GPIs have been associated with the formation of lipid rafts and protein sorting on membranes. The presence of a conserved glycan core with cell-specific modifications together with lipid remodelling during biosynthesis suggest that the properties of the glycolipids are being fine-tuned. We synthesized a series of GPI fragments and evaluated the interactions and arrangement of these glycolipids in monolayers as a 2-D membrane model. GIXD and IRRAS analyses showed the need of N-acetylglucosamine deacetylation for the formation of hydrogen bonds to obtain highly structured domains in the monolayers and an effect of the unsaturated lipids in formation and localization of the glycolipids within or between membrane microdomains. These results contribute to understand the role of these glycolipids and their modifications in the organization of membranes.

Semisynthesis of Functional Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-Anchored Proteins.

Glypiation is a common posttranslational modification of eukaryotic proteins involving the attachment of a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) glycolipid. GPIs contain a conserved phosphoglycan that is modified in a cell- and tissue-specific manner. GPI complexity suggests roles in biological processes and effects on the attached protein, but the difficulties to get homogeneous material have hindered studies. We disclose a one-pot intein-mediated ligation (OPL) to obtain GPI-anchored proteins. The strategy enables the glypiation of folded and denatured proteins with a natural linkage to the glycolipid. Using the strategy, glypiated eGFP, Thy1, and the Plasmodium berghei protein MSP119 were prepared. Glypiation did not alter the structure of eGFP and MSP119 proteins in solution, but it induced a strong pro-inflammatory response in vitro. The strategy provides access to glypiated proteins to elucidate the activity of this modification and for use as vaccine candidates against parasitic infections.

Synthesis of Galactosylated Glycosylphosphatidylinositol Derivatives from Trypanosoma brucei.

Trypanosoma brucei uses variant surface glycoproteins (VSGs) to evade the host immune system and ensure parasitic longevity in animals and humans. VSGs are attached to the cell membrane by complex glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchors (GPI). Distinguishing structural feature of VSG GPIs are multiple α- and ß-galactosides attached to the conserved GPI core structure. T. brucei GPIs have been associated with macrophage activation and alleviation of parasitemia during infection, acting as disease onset delaying antigens. Literature reports that link structural modifications in the GPIs to changes in biological activity are contradictory. We have established a synthetic route to prepare structurally overlapping GPI derivatives bearing different T. brucei characteristic structural modifications. The GPI collection will be used to assess the effect of galactosylation and phosphorylation on T. brucei GPI immunomodulatory activity, and to perform an epitope mapping of this complex glycolipid as potential diagnostic marker for Trypanosomiasis. A strategy for the synthesis of a complete α-tetragalactoside using the 2-naphthylmethyl protecting group and for subsequent attachment of GPI fragments to peptides is presented.

IgG antibodies to synthetic GPI are biomarkers of immune-status to both Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax malaria in young children.

BACKGROUND: Further reduction in malaria prevalence and its eventual elimination would be greatly facilitated by the development of biomarkers of exposure and/or acquired immunity to malaria, as well as the deployment of effective vaccines against Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax. A better understanding of the acquisition of immunity in naturally-exposed populations is essential for the identification of antigens useful as biomarkers, as well as to inform rational vaccine development. METHODS: ELISA was used to measure total IgG to a synthetic form of glycosylphosphatidylinositol from P. falciparum (PfGPI) in a cohort of 1-3 years old Papua New Guinea children with well-characterized individual differences in exposure to P. falciparum and P. vivax blood-stage infections. The relationship between IgG levels to PfGPI and measures of recent and past exposure to P. falciparum and P. vivax infections was investigated, as well as the association between antibody levels and prospective risk of clinical malaria over 16 months of follow-up. RESULTS: Total IgG levels to PfGPI were low in the young children tested. Antibody levels were higher in the presence of P. falciparum or P. vivax infections, but short-lived. High IgG levels were associated with higher risk of P. falciparum malaria (IRR 1.33-1.66, P = 0.008-0.027), suggesting that they are biomarkers of increased exposure to P. falciparum infections. Given the cross-reactive nature of antibodies to PfGPI, high IgG levels were also associated with reduced risk of P. vivax malaria (IRR 0.65-0.67, P = 0.039-0.044), indicating that these antibodies are also markers of acquired immunity to P. vivax. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights that in young children, IgG to PfGPI might be a useful marker of immune-status to both P. falciparum and P. vivax infections, and potentially useful to help malaria control programs to identify populations at-risk. Further functional studies are necessary to confirm the potential of PfGPI as a target for vaccine development.

Toward the Development of the Next Generation of a Rapid Diagnostic Test: Synthesis of Glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI) Analogues of Plasmodium falciparum and Immunological Characterization.

A large number of proteins in malaria parasites are anchored using glycophosphatidylinositols (GPIs) with lipid tails. These GPIs are structurally distinct from human GPIs. Plasmodium falciparum GPIs have been considered as potential vaccine candidates because these molecules are involved in inducing inflammatory responses in human hosts, and natural anti-GPI antibody responses have been shown to be associated with protection against severe disease. GPIs can also be considered as targets for rapid diagnostic tests. Because isolation of native GPIs in large quantities is challenging, development of synthetic GPI molecules can facilitate further exploration of GPI molecules for diagnostics. Here, we report synthesis and immunological characterization of a panel of malaria-specific GPI analogues. A total of three GPI analogues were chemically synthesized and conjugated to a carrier protein to immunize and generate antibodies in rabbits. The rabbit immune sera showed reactivity with synthetic GPIs and native GPIs extracted from P. falciparum parasite, as determined by Luminex and ELISA methods.

Regioselective phosphorylation of myo-inositol with BINOL-derived phosphoramidites and its application for protozoan lysophosphatidylinositol.

A regioselective phosphorylation method for myo-inositol was developed by utilizing readily preparable BINOL-derived phosphoramidites. The method also facilitated the complete separation of the diastereomeric products by simple chromatography. Based on this phosphorylation and Ni-catalyzed alkyl-alkyl cross-coupling reaction for long fatty acids, we achieved the first synthesis of a lysophosphatidylinositol, EhPIa having long fatty acid C30:1, as a partial structure of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor from the cell membrane of a protozoa, Entamoeba histolytica.

Understanding the Chemistry and Biology of Glycosylation with Glycan Synthesis.

Glycoscience research has been significantly impeded by the complex compositions of the glycans present in biological molecules and the lack of convenient tools suitable for studying the glycosylation process and its function. Polysaccharides and glycoconjugates are not encoded directly by genes; instead, their biosynthesis relies on the differential expression of carbohydrate enzymes, resulting in heterogeneous mixtures of glycoforms, each with a distinct physiological activity. Access to well-defined structures is required for functional study, and this has been provided by chemical and enzymatic synthesis and by the engineering of glycosylation pathways. This review covers general methods for preparing glycans commonly found in mammalian systems and applying them to the synthesis of therapeutically significant glycoconjugates (glycosaminoglycans, glycoproteins, glycolipids, glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored proteins) and the development of carbohydrate-based vaccines.

Tritium labelling of a cholesterol amphiphile designed for cell membrane anchoring of proteins.

Cell membrane association of proteins can be achieved by the addition of lipid moieties to the polypeptide chain, and such lipid-modified proteins have important biological functions. A class of cell surface proteins contains a complex glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) glycolipid at the C-terminus, and they are accumulated in cholesterol-rich membrane microdomains, that is, lipid rafts. Semisynthetic lipoproteins prepared from recombinant proteins and designed lipids are valuable probes and model systems of the membrane-associated proteins. Because GPI-anchored proteins can be reinserted into the cell membrane with the retention of the biological function, they are appropriate candidates for preparing models via reduction of the structural complexity. A synthetic headgroup was added to the 3ß-hydroxyl group of cholesterol, an essential lipid component of rafts, and the resulting cholesterol derivative was used as a simplified GPI mimetic. In order to quantitate the membrane integrated GPI mimetic after the exogenous addition to live cells, a tritium labelled cholesterol anchor was prepared. The radioactive label was introduced into the headgroup, and the radiolabelled GPI mimetic anchor was obtained with a specific activity of 1.37 TBq/mmol. The headgroup labelled cholesterol derivative was applied to demonstrate the sensitive detection of the cell membrane association of the anchor under in vivo conditions.

Synthesis of non-hydrolysable mimics of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors.

Synthesis of first generation non-hydrolysable C-phosphonate GPI analogs, viz., 6-O-(2-amino-2-deoxy-α-d-glucopyranosyl)-d-myo-inositol-1-O-(sn-3,4-bis(palmitoyloxy)butyl-1-phosphonate) and 6-O-(2-amino-2-deoxy-α-d-glucopyranosyl)-d-myo-inositol-1-O-(sn-2,3-bis(palmitoyloxy)propyl-1-phosphonate) 23b, is reported. The target compounds were synthesized by the coupling of α-pseudodisaccharide 21 with phosphonic acids 18a and 18b respectively in quantitative yield followed by de-protection. These synthetic C-phosphonate GPI-probes were resistant to phosphatidylinositol specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC) and also showed moderate inhibition of the enzyme activity.

Chemoenzymatic synthesis of the human CD52 and CD24 antigen analogues.

Analogs of the human CD52 and CD24 antigens carrying the common core structure of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors and the intact polypeptide sequences of CD52 and CD24 were chemoenzymatically synthesized. CD52 and CD24 proteins were obtained by solid-phase peptide synthesis and then coupled to chemically synthesized GPI anchors under the influence of a bacterial enzyme, sortase A, to afford the target molecules in good yields.

Stereoselective α-glycosylation of C(6)-hydroxyl myo-inositols via nickel catalysis-application to the synthesis of GPI anchor pseudo-oligosaccharides.

Glycosylphosphatidyl inositol (GPI) anchors play a key role in many eukaryotic biological pathways. Stereoselective synthesis of GPI anchor analogues have proven to be critical for probing the biosynthesis, structure, and biological properties of these compounds. Challenges that have emerged from these efforts include the preparation of the selectively protected myo-inositol building blocks and the stereoselective construction of glucosamine α-linked myo-inositol containing pseudodisaccharide units. Herein, we describe the effectiveness of the cationic nickel(II) catalyst, Ni(4-F-PhCN)4(OTf)2, at promoting selective formation of 1,2-cis-2-amino glycosidic bonds between the C(2)-N-substituted benzylideneamino trihaloacetimidate donors and C(6)-hydroxyl myo-inositol acceptors. This catalytic coupling process allows rapid access to pseudosaccharides of GPI anchors in good yields and with excellent levels of α-selectivity (α:ß=10:1-20:1). In stark contrast, activation of trichloroacetimidate donors containing the C(2)-N-substituted benzylidene group with TMSOTf and BF3(.)OEt2 provided the desired pseudodisaccharides as a 1:1 mixture of α- and ß-isomers.

Recent progress in synthetic and biological studies of GPI anchors and GPI-anchored proteins.

Covalent attachment of glycosylphosphatidylinositols (GPIs) to the protein C-terminus is one of the most common posttranslational modifications in eukaryotic cells. In addition to anchoring surface proteins to the cell membrane, GPIs also have many other important biological functions, determined by their unique structure and property. This account has reviewed the recent progress made in disclosing GPI and GPI-anchored protein biosynthesis, in the chemical and chemoenzymatic synthesis of GPIs and GPI-anchored proteins, and in understanding the conformation, organization, and distribution of GPIs in the lipid membrane.

Total synthesis of a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor of the human lymphocyte CD52 antigen.

The first total synthesis of a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor bearing a polyunsaturated arachidonoyl fatty acid is reported. This lipid is found in mammalian GPIs that do not undergo lipid remodeling, a process that has important implications in the localization and function of GPI-anchored proteins. Incorporation of the oxidation- and reduction-sensitive arachidonoyl lipid in the target GPI was accomplished by using the para-methoxybenzyl (PMB) group for permanent hydroxyl group protection, which featured a selective, rapid, and efficient global deprotection protocol. The flexibility of this synthetic strategy was further highlighted by the inclusion of two additional GPI core structural modifications present in the GPI anchor of the human lymphocyte CD52 antigen.

A general method for synthesis of GPI anchors illustrated by the total synthesis of the low-molecular-weight antigen from Toxoplasma gondii.

Building blocks: a new, general synthetic strategy, which allows the construction of branched glycosylphosphatidylinositols (GPIs), enables the synthesis of parasitic glycolipid 1 from Toxoplasma gondii. In addition, the structure is further confirmed by recognition of monoclonal antibodies.

Synthesis of the essential core of the human glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor.

The biological role of GPI anchors is of paramount importance; however, we are still far from fully understanding the structure-function relationship of these molecules. One major limiting factor has been the tiny quantities available from natural sources; obtaining homogeneous and well-defined GPI structures by synthesis, is both a challenge and an attractive goal. We report here the convergent synthesis of the essential core of the human GPI anchor 1, exploiting a common precursor to obtain the trisaccharidic donor 2 and a novel protecting groups sequence. The final product, prepared for the first time, is biologically active.

A survey of Ley's reactivity tuning in oligosaccharide synthesis.

This chapter summarizes the concepts and chemistry developed by Ley's group in relation to the relevance of reactivity tuning in oligosaccharide coupling reactions. The recognition that protecting groups affect the reactivity of glycosyl donors allowed Ley's group to make imaginative use of their 1,2-diacetal protecting groups. The combination of 1,2-diacetals with the presence of different anomeric leaving groups provides up to four different levels of reactivity. The exploitation of these reactivity levels in chemoselective glycosylation processes (reactivity tuning) has allowed the development of highly simplified routes to several complex oligosaccharides in step-wise or one-pot procedures.

The synthesis of 1,2-cis-amino containing oligosaccharides toward biological investigation.

1,2-cis-Aminoglycoside structure is frequently found in bioactive oligosaccharide. In this chapter, the recent development of 1,2-cis-aminoglycoside preparation is described. The interface investigations between biology and chemistry with using synthetic oligosaccharides are also described.

Synthesis of a GPI anchor module suitable for protein post-translational modification.

Eukaryotic cell surface proteins are often modified by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor. More than 200 of these post-translationally altered proteins are presently known, a prominent example being the prion protein (PrP). Although the significance of the GPI anchor is well recognized, efforts to study its function are hampered due to its complex chemical nature, which combines hydrophilic glycosyl chains with hydrophobic lipid moieties. Here we describe a general method for the synthesis of a GPI-anchored peptide containing an N-terminal Cys. This module can be employed for the production of proteins containing a natural GPI anchor using expressed protein ligation.