Genome-wide identification and expression profiling of glutathione S-transferase family under multiple abiotic and biotic stresses in Medicago truncatula L.

Glutathione transferases (GSTs) constitute an ancient, ubiquitous, multi-functional antioxidant enzyme superfamily that has great importance on cellular detoxification against abiotic and biotic stresses as well as plant development and growth. The present study aimed to a comprehensive genome-wide identification and functional characterization of GST family in one of the economically important legume plants-Medicago truncatula. Here, we have identified a total of ninety-two putative MtGST genes that code for 120 proteins. All these members were classified into twelve classes based on their phylogenetic relationship and the presence of structural conserved domain/motif. Among them, 7 MtGST gene pairs were identified to have segmental duplication. Expression profiling of MtGST transcripts revealed their high level of organ/tissue-specific expression in most of the developmental stages and anatomical tissues. The transcripts of MtGSTU5, MtGSTU8, MtGSTU17, MtGSTU46, and MtGSTU47 showed significant up-regulation in response to various abiotic and biotic stresses. Moreover, transcripts of MtGSTU8, MtGSTU14, MtGSTU28, MtGSTU30, MtGSTU34, MtGSTU46 and MtGSTF8 were found to be highly upregulated in response to drought treatment for 24h and 48h. Among the highly stress-responsive MtGST members, MtGSTU17 showed strong affinity towards its conventional substrates reduced glutathione (GSH) and 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) with the lowest binding energy of-5.7 kcal/mol and -6.5 kcal/mol, respectively. Furthermore, the substrate-binding site residues of MtGSTU17 were found to be highly conserved. These findings will facilitate the further functional and evolutionary characterization of GST genes in Medicago.

Diversity of Omega Glutathione Transferases in mushroom-forming fungi revealed by phylogenetic, transcriptomic, biochemical and structural approaches.

The Omega class of glutathione transferases (GSTs) forms a distinct class within the cytosolic GST superfamily because most of them possess a catalytic cysteine residue. The human GST Omega 1 isoform was first characterized twenty years ago, but it took years of work to clarify the roles of the human isoforms. Concerning the kingdom of fungi, little is known about the cellular functions of Omega glutathione transferases (GSTOs), although they are widely represented in some of these organisms. In this study, we re-assess the phylogeny and the classification of GSTOs based on 240 genomes of mushroom-forming fungi (Agaricomycetes). We observe that the number of GSTOs is not only extended in the order of Polyporales but also in other orders such as Boletales. Our analysis leads to a new classification in which the fungal GSTOs are divided into two Types A and B. The catalytic residue of Type-A is either cysteine or serine, while that of Type-B is cysteine. The present study focuses on Trametes versicolor GSTO isoforms that possess a catalytic cysteine residue. Transcriptomic data show that Type-A GSTOs are constitutive enzymes while Type-B are inducible ones. The crystallographic analysis reveals substantial structural differences between the two types while they have similar biochemical profiles in the tested conditions. Additionally, these enzymes have the ability to bind antioxidant molecules such as wood polyphenols in two possible binding sites as observed from X-ray structures. The multiplication of GSTOs could allow fungal organisms to adapt more easily to new environments.

Glutathione-S-transferase alpha-4 in Hippocampus abdominalis (big-belly seahorse): Molecular characterization, antioxidant properties, and its potent immune response.

Glutathione-S-transferase (GST) is a key enzyme in the phase-II detoxification process and is a biomarker of oxidative stress. In this study, we analyzed the molecular, biochemical, and antioxidant properties of GST alpha-4 from Hippocampus abdominalis (HaGSTA-4). Also, the spatial and temporal expression of HaGSTA-4 upon immune challenge with abiotic and biotic stimulants were evaluated. The HaGSTA-4 ORF encodes 223 amino acids with a molecular weight of 25.7 kDa, and an estimated isoelectric point (pI) of 8.47. It consists of the GST_C superfamily and thioredoxin-like superfamily domain. The phylogenetic tree revealed that HaGSTA-4 is evolutionarily conserved with its GST alpha class counterparts. From pairwise alignment, the highest values of identity (78.5%) and similarity (85.7%) were with Parambassis ranga GSTA-4. Protein rHaGSTA-4 exhibited the highest conjugation activity towards 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) at pH 7 and 20 °C. A disk diffusion assay showed that rHaGSTA-4 significantly protects cells from the stress of exposure to ROS inducers such as CuSO4, CdCl2, and ZnCl2. Furthermore, overexpressed HaGSTA-4 defended cells against oxidative stress caused by H2O2; evidence of selenium-independent peroxidase activity. From qPCR, the tissue-specific expression profile demonstrates that HaGSTA-4 is most highly expressed in the kidney, followed by the intestine and stomach, among fourteen different tissues extracted from healthy seahorses. The mRNA expression profile of HaGSTA-4 upon immune challenge varied depending on the tissue and the time after challenge. Altogether, this study suggests that HaGSTA-4 may be involved in protection against oxidative stress, in immune defense regulation, and xenobiotic metabolism.

Identification of Anthocyanins-Related Glutathione S-Transferase (GST) Genes in the Genome of Cultivated Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa).

Anthocyanins are responsible for the red color of strawberry, they are a subclass of flavonoids synthesized in cytosol and transferred to vacuole to form the visible color. Previous studies in model and ornamental plants indicated members of the glutathione S-transferase (GST) gene family were involved in vacuolar accumulation of anthocyanins. In the present study, a total of 130 FaGST genes were identified in the genome of cultivated strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa), which were unevenly distributed across the 28 chromosomes from the four subgenomes. Evolutionary analysis revealed the expansion of FaGST family was under stable selection and mainly drove by WGD/segmental duplication event. Classification and phylogenetic analysis indicated that all the FaGST genes were clarified into seven subclasses, among which FaGST1, FaGST37, and FaGST97 belonging to Phi class were closely related to FvRAP, an anthocyanin-related GST of wildwood strawberry, and this clade was clustered with other known anthocyanin-related GSTs. RNAseq-based expression analysis at different developmental stages of strawberry revealed that the expression of FaGST1, FaGST37, FaGST39, FaGST73, and FaGST97 was gradually increased during the fruit ripening, consistent with the anthocyanins accumulation. These expression patterns of those five FaGST genes were also significantly correlated with those of other anthocyanin biosynthetic genes such as FaCHI, FaCHS, and FaANS, as well as anthocyanin regulatory gene FaMYB10. These results indicated FaGST1, FaGST37, FaGST39, FaGST73, and FaGST97 may function in vacuolar anthocyanin accumulation in cultivated strawberry.

The role of Mu-type glutathione S-transferase in the mud crab (Scylla paramamosain) during ammonia stress.

Glutathione S-transferase (GST) plays important roles in cellular detoxification and antioxidant defense. A Mu-type glutathione S-transferase (designated as SpMu-GST) was obtained from the mud crab Scylla paramamosain. The open reading frame of SpMu-GST was comprised a 690 bp, which encoded a putative protein of 229 amino acids. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) revealed that the SpMu-GST mRNA was expressed in all examined tissues, with highest expression in hepatopancreas. During ammonia exposure, the SpMu-GST transcriptions in hepatopancreas and gill were significantly up-regulated at early exposure time. Moreover, RNA interference (RNAi) experiment was designed to understand the roles of SpMu-GST under ammonia exposure. Ammonia exposure reduced the levels of glutathione S-transferase (GST), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and total antioxidative capacity (T-AOC), and increased the formation of malondialdehyde (MDA). After knockdown of the SpMu-GST level, GST activity and T-AOC were significantly decreased at some exposure time after ammonia exposure. However, the mortality of mud crabs and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents significantly increased under ammonia exposure. These results further suggested that SpMu-GST played a critical role in mud crab antioxidant defenses in response to environmental stress.

A newly identified cluster of glutathione S-transferase genes provides Verticillium wilt resistance in cotton.

As the largest cultivated fiber crop in the world, cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) is often exposed to various biotic stresses during its growth periods. Verticillium wilt caused by Verticillium dahliae is a severe disease in cotton, and the molecular mechanism of cotton resistance for Verticillium wilt needs to be further investigated. Here, we revealed that the cotton genome contains nine types of GST genes. An evolutionary analysis showed that a newly identified cluster (including Gh_A09G1508, Gh_A09G1509 and Gh_A09G1510) located on chromosome 09 of the A-subgenome was under positive selection pressure during the formation of an allotetraploid. Transcriptome analysis showed that this cluster participates in Verticillium wilt resistance. Because the Gh_A09G1509 gene showed the greatest differential expression in the resistant cultivar under V. dahliae stress, we overexpressed this gene in tobacco and found that its overexpression resulted in enhanced Verticillium wilt resistance. Suppression of the gene cluster via virus-induced gene silencing made cotton plants of the resistant cultivar Nongda601 significantly susceptible. These results demonstrated that the GST cluster played an important role in Verticillium wilt resistance. Further investigation showed that the encoded enzymes of the cluster were essential for the delicate equilibrium between the production and scavenging of H2 O2 during V. dahliae stress.

Identification and expression profiles of twenty-six glutathione S-transferase genes from rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).

The rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae, is one of the most destructive pests in stored cereals products. In this study, 26 cDNAs encoding glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) were sequenced and characterized in S. oryzae. Phylogenetic analysis displayed the categorization of 26 GSTs into six different cytosolic classes, including two in the delta, twelve in epsilon, three in omega, six in sigma, two in theta, and one in zeta class. RT-qPCR assay illustrated that the relative expression of ten GST genes was significantly higher in adult stages than in larval and pupal developmental stages. Tissue-specific expression analysis revealed that the SoGSTe5, SoGSTe7, SoGSTe12, and SoGSTz1 were up-regulated in the midgut, SoGSTe2, SoGSTe6, and SoGSTs2 were up-regulated in the fat body, and three GSTs (SoGSTd1, SoGSTd2 and SoGSTe4) were up-regulated in Malpighian tubules. RT-qPCR indicated that five GST genes were over expressed after exposure to phosphine at various times and concentrations. The increase in GST gene expressions after phosphine exposure in S. oryzae may lead to an improved tolerance for fumigations and xenobiotics.

Transgenic Arabidopsis Plants Expressing Grape Glutathione S-Transferase Gene (VvGSTF13) Show Enhanced Tolerance to Abiotic Stress.

Although glutathione S-transferase (GST, EC 2.5.1.18) is thought to play important roles in abiotic stress, limited information is available regarding the function of its gene in grapes. In this study, a GST gene from grape, VvGSTF13, was cloned and functionally characterized. Transgenic Arabidopsis plants containing this gene were normal in terms of growth and maturity compared with control plants but had enhanced resistance to salt, drought, and methyl viologen stress. The increased tolerance of the transgenic plants correlated with changes in activities of antioxidative enzymes. Our results indicate that the gene from grape plays a positive role in improving tolerance to salinity, drought, and methyl viologen stresses in Arabidopsis.

Trametes versicolor glutathione transferase Xi 3, a dual Cys-GST with catalytic specificities of both Xi and Omega classes.

Glutathione transferases (GSTs) from the Xi and Omega classes have a catalytic cysteine residue, which gives them reductase activities. Until now, they have been assigned distinct substrates. While Xi GSTs specifically reduce glutathionyl-(hydro)quinones, Omega GSTs are specialized in the reduction of glutathionyl-acetophenones. Here, we present the biochemical and structural analysis of TvGSTX1 and TvGSTX3 isoforms from the wood-degrading fungus Trametes versicolor. TvGSTX1 reduces GS-menadione as expected, while TvGSTX3 reduces both Xi and Omega substrates. An in-depth structural analysis indicates a broader active site for TvGSTX3 due to specific differences in the nature of the residues situated in the C-terminal helix α9. This feature could explain the catalytic duality of TvGSTX3. Based on phylogenetic analysis, we propose that this duality might exist in saprophytic fungi and ascomycetes.

Molecular cloning, identification of GSTs family in sunflower and their regulatory roles in biotic and abiotic stress.

Glutathione-S-transferase (GST) genes exist widely in plants and play major role in metabolic detoxification of exogenous chemical substances and oxidative stress. In this study, 14 sunflower GST genes (HaGSTs) were identified based on the sunflower transcriptome database that we had constructed. Full-length cDNA of 14 HaGTSs were isolated from total RNA by reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR). Sunflower was received biotic stress (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) and abiotic stress (NaCl, low-temperature, drought and wound). GST activity was measured by using the universal substrate. The results showed that most of the HaGSTs were up-regulated after NaCl and PEG6000-induced stresses, while a few HaGSTs were up-regulated after S. sclerotiorum, hypothermia and wound-induced stressed, and there was correlation between the changes of GST activity and the expression of HaGSTs, indicating that HaGSTs may play regulatory role in the biotic and abiotic stress responses. 14 HaGSTs from sunflower were identified, and the expression of HaGSTs were tissue-specific and played regulatory roles in both stress and abiotic stress.

Crystal structure of the delta-class glutathione transferase in Musca domestica.

Among the various glutathione transferase (GST) isozymes in insects, the delta- and epsilon-class GSTs fulfill critical functions during the detoxification of insecticides. We crystalized MdGSTD1, the major delta-class GST isozyme in the housefly (Musca domestica), in complex with glutathione (GSH) and solved its structure at a resolution of 1.4 Å. The overall folding of MdGSTD1 resembled other known delta-class GSTs. Its substrate binding pocket was exposed to solvent and considerably more open than in the epsilon-class GST from M. domestica (MdGSTE2). However, their C-terminal structures differed the most because of the different lengths of the C-terminal regions. Although this region does not seem to directly interact with substrates, its deletion reduced the enzymatic activity by more than 70%, indicating a function in maintaining the proper conformation of the binding pocket. Binding of GSH to the GSH-binding region of MdGSTD1 results in a rigid conformation of this region. Although MdGSTD1 has a higher affinity for GSH than the epsilon class enzymes, the thiol group of the GSH molecule was not close enough to serine residue 9 to form a hydrogen-bond with this residue, which is predicted to act as the catalytic center for thiol group deprotonation in GSH.

Complex evolution of the GSTM gene family involves sharing of GSTM1 deletion polymorphism in humans and chimpanzees.

BACKGROUND: The common deletion of the glutathione S-transferase Mu 1 (GSTM1) gene in humans has been shown to be involved in xenobiotic metabolism and associated with bladder cancer. However, the evolution of this deletion has not been investigated. RESULTS: In this study, we conducted comparative analyses of primate genomes. We demonstrated that the GSTM gene family has evolved through multiple structural variations, involving gene duplications, losses, large inversions and gene conversions. We further showed experimentally that the GSTM1 was polymorphically deleted in both humans and also in chimpanzees, through independent deletion events. To generalize our results, we searched for genic deletions that are polymorphic in both humans and chimpanzees. Consequently, we found only two such deletions among the thousands that we have searched, one of them being the GSTM1 deletion and the other surprisingly being another metabolizing gene, the UGT2B17. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, our results support the emerging notion that metabolizing gene families, such as the GSTM, NAT, UGT and CYP, have been evolving rapidly through gene duplication and deletion events in primates, leading to complex structural variation within and among species with unknown evolutionary consequences.

Glutathione S-transferase (GST) of American Cockroach, Periplaneta americana: Classes, Isoforms, and Allergenicity.

Insect glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) play important roles in insecticide/drug resistance and stress response. Medically, GSTs of house dust mites (Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus and Blomia tropicalis) and German cockroach (Blattella germanica) are human allergens. In this study, classes, isoforms and B-cell and allergenic epitopes of GST of American cockroach, Periplaneta americana, the predominant species in the tropics and subtropics were investigated for the first time. Enzymatically active native and recombinant P. americana-GSTs bound to IgE in sera of all P. americana allergic patients that were tested. By gel-based proteomics and multiple sequence alignments, the native GST comprises three isoforms of delta and sigma classes. All isoforms interacted with serum IgE of the cockroach allergic subjects. Molecularly, the protein contains six B-cell epitopes; two epitopes located at ß1-α1 and ß4-α3 regions bound to patients' serum IgE, indicating that they are allergenic. P. americana are ubiquitous and their GST can sensitize humans to allergic diseases; thus, the protein should be included in the allergen array for component resolved diagnosis (CRD) of allergic patients, either by skin prick test or specific IgE determination. The GST is suitable also as a target of environmental allergen detection and quantification for intervention of cockroach sensitization and allergic morbidity.

Identification and analysis of glutathione S-transferase gene family in sweet potato reveal divergent GST-mediated networks in aboveground and underground tissues in response to abiotic stresses.

BACKGROUND: Sweet potato, a hexaploid species lacking a reference genome, is one of the most important crops in many developing countries, where abiotic stresses are a primary cause of reduction of crop yield. Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are multifunctional enzymes that play important roles in oxidative stress tolerance and cellular detoxification. RESULTS: A total of 42 putative full-length GST genes were identified from two local transcriptome databases and validated by molecular cloning and Sanger sequencing. Sequence and intraspecific phylogenetic analyses revealed extensive differentiation in their coding sequences and divided them into eight subfamilies. Interspecific phylogenetic and comparative analyses indicated that most examined GST paralogs might originate and diverge before the speciation of sweet potato. Results from large-scale RNA-seq and quantitative real-time PCR experiments exhibited extensive variation in gene-expression profiles across different tissues and varieties, which implied strong evolutionary divergence in their gene-expression regulation. Moreover, we performed five manipulated stress experiments and uncovered highly divergent stress-response patterns of sweet potato GST genes in aboveground and underground tissues. CONCLUSIONS: Our study identified a large number of sweet potato GST genes, systematically investigated their evolutionary diversification, and provides new insights into the GST-mediated stress-response mechanisms in this worldwide crop.

Transcriptome profiling reveals differential gene expression of detoxification enzymes in a hemimetabolous tobacco pest after feeding on jasmonate-silenced Nicotiana attenuata plants.

BACKGROUND: The evolutionary arms race between plants and insects has driven the co-evolution of sophisticated defense mechanisms used by plants to deter herbivores and equally sophisticated strategies that enable phytophagous insects to rapidly detoxify the plant's defense metabolites. In this study, we identify the genetic determinants that enable the mirid, Tupiocoris notatus, to feed on its well-defended host plant, Nicotiana attenuata, an outstanding model for plant-insect interaction studies. RESULTS: We used an RNAseq approach to evaluate the global gene expression of T. notatus after feeding on a transgenic N. attenuata line which does not accumulate jasmonic acid (JA) after herbivory, and consequently accumulates very low levels of defense metabolites. Using Illumina sequencing, we generated a de novo assembled transcriptome which resulted in 63,062 contigs (putative transcript isoforms) contained in 42,610 isotigs (putative identified genes). Differential expression analysis based on RSEM-estimated transcript abundances identified 82 differentially expressed (DE) transcripts between T. notatus fed on wild-type and the defenseless plants. The same analysis conducted with Corset-estimated transcript abundances identified 59 DE clusters containing 85 transcripts. In both analyses, a larger number of DE transcripts were found down-regulated in mirids feeding on JA-silenced plants (around 70%). Among these down-regulated transcripts we identified seven transcripts possibly involved in the detoxification of N. attenuata defense metabolite, specifically, one glutathione-S-transferase (GST), one UDP-glucosyltransferase (UGT), five cytochrome P450 (P450s), and six serine proteases. Real-time quantitative PCR confirmed the down-regulation for six transcripts (encoding GST, UGT and four P450s) and revealed that their expression was only slightly decreased in mirids feeding on another N. attenuata transgenic line specifically silenced in the accumulation of diterpene glycosides, one of the many classes of JA-mediated defenses in N. attenuata. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide a transcriptional overview of the changes in a specialist hemimetabolous insect associated with feeding on host plants depleted in chemical defenses. Overall, the analysis reveals that T. notatus responses to host plant defenses are narrow and engages P450 detoxification pathways. It further identifies candidate genes which can be tested in future experiments to understand their role in shaping the T. notatus-N. attenuata interaction.

Glutathione Transferases Superfamily: Cold-Inducible Expression of Distinct GST Genes in Brassica oleracea.

Plants, as sessile organisms, can suffer serious growth and developmental consequences under cold stress conditions. Glutathione transferases (GSTs, EC 2.5.1.18) are ubiquitous and multifunctional conjugating proteins, which play a major role in stress responses by preventing oxidative damage by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Currently, understanding of their function(s) during different biochemical and signaling pathways under cold stress condition remain unclear. In this study, using combined computational strategy, we identified 65 Brassica oleracea glutathione transferases (BoGST) and characterized them based on evolutionary analysis into 11 classes. Inter-species and intra-species duplication was evident between BoGSTs and Arabidopsis GSTs. Based on localization analyses, we propose possible pathways in which GST genes are involved during cold stress. Further, expression analysis of the predicted putative functions for GST genes were investigated in two cold contrasting genotypes (cold tolerance and susceptible) under cold condition, most of these genes were highly expressed at 6 h and 1 h in the cold tolerant (CT) and cold susceptible (CS) lines, respectively. Overall, BoGSTU19, BoGSTU24, BoGSTF10 are candidate genes highly expressed in B. oleracea. Further investigation of GST superfamily in B. oleracea will aid in understanding complex mechanism underlying cold tolerance in plants.

The Glutathione-S-Transferase, Cytochrome P450 and Carboxyl/Cholinesterase Gene Superfamilies in Predatory Mite Metaseiulus occidentalis.

Pesticide-resistant populations of the predatory mite Metaseiulus (= Typhlodromus or Galendromus) occidentalis (Arthropoda: Chelicerata: Acari: Phytoseiidae) have been used in the biological control of pest mites such as phytophagous Tetranychus urticae. However, the pesticide resistance mechanisms in M. occidentalis remain largely unknown. In other arthropods, members of the glutathione-S-transferase (GST), cytochrome P450 (CYP) and carboxyl/cholinesterase (CCE) gene superfamilies are involved in the diverse biological pathways such as the metabolism of xenobiotics (e.g. pesticides) in addition to hormonal and chemosensory processes. In the current study, we report the identification and initial characterization of 123 genes in the GST, CYP and CCE superfamilies in the recently sequenced M. occidentalis genome. The gene count represents a reduction of 35% compared to T. urticae. The distribution of genes in the GST and CCE superfamilies in M. occidentalis differs significantly from those of insects and resembles that of T. urticae. Specifically, we report the presence of the Mu class GSTs, and the J' and J" clade CCEs that, within the Arthropoda, appear unique to Acari. Interestingly, the majority of CCEs in the J' and J" clades contain a catalytic triad, suggesting that they are catalytically active. They likely represent two Acari-specific CCE clades that may participate in detoxification of xenobiotics. The current study of genes in these superfamilies provides preliminary insights into the potential molecular components that may be involved in pesticide metabolism as well as hormonal/chemosensory processes in the agriculturally important M. occidentalis.

Clonorchis sinensis omega-class glutathione transferases play major roles in the protection of the reproductive system during maturation and the response to oxidative stress.

BACKGROUND: Clonorchis sinensis causes a major food-borne helminthic infection. This species locates in mammalian hepatobiliary ducts, where oxidative stressors and hydrophobic substances are profuse. To adapt to the hostile micromilieu and to ensure its long-term survival, the parasite continuously produces a diverse repertoire of antioxidant enzymes including several species of glutathione transferases (GSTs). Helminth GSTs play pertinent roles during sequestration of harmful xenobiotics since most helminths lack the cytochrome P-450 detoxifying enzyme. METHODS: We isolated and analyzed the biochemical properties of two omega-class GSTs of C. sinensis (CsGSTo1 and CsGSTo2). We observed spatiotemporal expression patterns in accordance with the maturation of the worm's reproductive system. Possible biological protective roles of CsGSTos in these organs under oxidative stress were investigated. RESULTS: The full-length cDNAs of CsGSTo1 and 2 constituted 965 bp and 1,061 bp with open reading frames of 737 bp (246 amino acids) and 669 bp (223 amino acids). They harbored characteristic N-terminal thioredoxin-like and C-terminal α-helical domains. A cysteine residue, which constituted omega-class specific active site, and the glutathione-binding amino acids, were recognized in appropriate positions. They shared 44 % sequence identity with each other and 14.8-44.8 % with orthologues/homologues from other organisms. Bacterially expressed recombinant proteins (rCsGSTo1 and 2) exhibited dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR) and thioltransferase activities. DHAR activity was higher than thioltransferase activity. They showed weak canonical GST activity toward 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene. S-hexylglutathione potently and competitively inhibited the active-site at nanomolar concentrations (0.63 and 0.58 nM for rCsGSTo1 and 2). Interestingly, rCsGSTos exhibited high enzyme activity toward mu- and theta-class GST specific substrate, 4-nitrobenzyl chloride. Expression of CsGSTo transcripts and proteins increased beginning in 2-week-old juveniles and reached their highest levels in 4-week-old adults. The proteins were mainly expressed in the elements of the reproductive system, such as vitelline follicles, testes, seminal receptacle, sperm and eggs. Oxidative stressors induced upregulated expression of CsGSTos in these organs. Regardless of oxidative stresses, CsGSTos continued to be highly expressed in eggs. CsGSTo1 or 2 overexpressing bacteria demonstrated high resistance under oxidative killing. CONCLUSIONS: CsGSTos might be critically involved in protection of the reproductive system during maturation of C. sinensis worms and in response to oxidative conditions, thereby contributing to maintenance of parasite fecundity.

Characterisation of Dermanyssus gallinae glutathione S-transferases and their potential as acaricide detoxification proteins.

BACKGROUND: Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) facilitate detoxification of drugs by catalysing the conjugation of the reduced glutathione (GSH) to electrophilic xenobiotic substrates and therefore have a function in multi-drug resistance. As a result, knowledge of GSTs can inform both drug resistance in, and novel interventions for, the control of endo- and ectoparasite species. Acaricide resistance and the need for novel control methods are both pressing needs for Dermanyssus gallinae, a highly economically important haematophagous ectoparasite of poultry. METHODS: A transcriptomic database representing D. gallinae was examined and 11 contig sequences were identified with GST BlastX identities. The transcripts represented by 3 contigs, designated Deg-GST-1, -2 and -3, were fully sequenced and further characterized by phylogenetic analysis. Recombinant versions of Deg-GST-1, -2 and -3 (rDeg-GST) were enzymically active and acaricide-binding properties of the rDeg-GSTs were established by evaluating the ability of selected acaricides to inhibit the enzymatic activity of rDeg-GSTs. RESULTS: 6 of the identified GSTs belonged to the mu class, followed by 3 kappa, 1 omega and 1 delta class molecules. Deg-GST-1 and -3 clearly partitioned with orthologous mu class GSTs and Deg-GST-2 partitioned with delta class GSTs. Phoxim, permethrin and abamectin significantly inhibited rDeg-GST-1 activity by 56, 35 and 17% respectively. Phoxim also inhibited rDeg-2-GST (14.8%) and rDeg-GST-3 (20.6%) activities. CONCLUSIONS: Deg-GSTs may have important roles in the detoxification of pesticides and, with the increased occurrence of acaricide resistance in this species worldwide, Deg-GSTs are attractive targets for novel interventions.

Interaction of Omega, Sigma, and Theta glutathione transferases with p38b mitogen-activated protein kinase from the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster.

Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are a diverse family of phase II detoxification enzymes found in almost all organisms. Besides playing a major role in the detoxification of xenobiotic and toxic compounds, GSTs are also involved in the regulation of mitogen activated protein (MAP) kinase signal transduction by interaction with proteins in the pathway. An in vitro study was performed for Theta, Omega, Sigma GSTs and their interaction with MAP kinase p38b protein from the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster Meigen (Diptera: Drosophilidae). The study included the effects of all five Omega class GSTs (DmGSTO1, DmGSTO2a, DmGSTO2b, DmGSTO3, DmGSTO4), all five Theta class GSTs (DmGSTT1, DmGSTT2, DmGSTT3a, DmGSTT3b, DmGSTT4), and one Sigma class glutathione transferase on the activity of Drosophila p38b, including the reciprocal effect of this kinase protein on glutathione transferase activity. It was found that DmGSTT2, DmGSTT3b, DmGSTO1, and DmGSTO3 activated p38b significantly. Substrate specificities of GSTs were also altered after co-incubation with p38b. Although p38b activated DmGSTO1, DmGSTO2a, and DmGSTT2, it inhibited DmGSTT3b and DmGSTO3 activity toward xenobiotic and physiological substrates tested. These results suggest a novel link between Omega and Theta GSTs with the p38b MAP kinase pathway.