The active fragments of ghrelin cross the blood-brain barrier and enter the brain to produce antinociceptive effects after systemic administration.

G (1-5)-NH2, G (1-7)-NH2, and G (1-9) are the active fragments of ghrelin. The aim of this study was to investigate the antinociceptive effects, their ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, and the receptor mechanism(s) of these fragments using the tail withdrawal test in male Kunming mice. The antinociceptive effects of these fragments (2, 6, 20, and 60 nmol/mouse) were tested at 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 min after intravenous (i.v.) injection. These fragments induced dose- and time-related antinociceptive effects relative to saline. Using the near infrared fluorescence imaging experiments, our results showed that these fragments could cross the brain-blood barrier and enter the brain. The antinociceptive effects of these fragments were completely antagonized by naloxone (intracerebroventricular, i.c.v.); however, naloxone methiodide (intraperitoneal, i.p.), which is the peripheral restricted opioid receptor antagonist, did not antagonize these antinociceptive effects. Furthermore, the GHS-R1α antagonist [D-Lys3]-GHRP-6 (i.c.v.) completely antagonized these antinociceptive effects, too. These results suggested that these fragments induced antinociceptive effects through central opioid receptors and GHS-R1α. In conclusion, our studies indicated that these active fragments of ghrelin could cross the brain-blood barrier and enter the brain and induce antinociceptive effects through central opioid receptors and GHS-R1α after intravenous injection.

Chronic exposure to methylmercury disrupts ghrelin actions in C57BL/6J mice.

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a neurotoxic pollutant widely present in the environment. Initial symptoms of MeHg may include loss of body weight. However, the mechanisms by which MeHg induces body weight changes have yet to be fully elucidated. Body weight is regulated by multiple mechanisms. Whereas multiple peripheral peptides lead to food intake cessation, ghrelin is the only recognized peripheral hormone that stimulates food intake. It exerts its action on Neuropeptide Y/Agouti-related peptide neurons in the hypothalamus. To test if MeHg affects ghrelin signaling C57BL/6J mice (males and females) were exposed to 5 ppm MeHg via drinking water during a month. On days 15 and 30 of MeHg exposure ghrelin was administered intraperitoneally and changes in body weight and food intake were recorded. In addition, changes in ghrelin-induced signaling pathways in hypothalamus were also analyzed. Here, we show that in males, MeHg enhanced ghrelin-induced body weight gain by activating the AMP-activated Kinase (AMPK)/Uncoupled protein 2 (UCP2) signaling pathway. In contrast, in females, MeHg inhibited ghrelin-induced mTOR signaling activation and decreased Npy mRNA expression, thus mitigating the ghrelin-induced weight gain. Combined, our novel results demonstrate, for the first time, that MeHg disrupts the physiological functions of ghrelin differently in males and females.

Ischemic stroke and select adipose-derived and sex hormones: a review.

Ischemic stroke is the fifth leading cause of death in the USA and is the leading cause of serious, long-term disability worldwide. The principle sex hormones (estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone), both endogenous and exogenous, have profound effects on various stroke outcomes and have become the focus of a number of studies evaluating risk factors and treatment options for ischemic stroke. In addition, the expression of other hormones that may influence stroke outcome, including select adipose-derived hormones (adiponectin, leptin, and ghrelin), can be regulated by sex hormones and are also the focus of several ischemic stroke studies. This review aims to summarize some of the preclinical and clinical studies investigating the principle sex hormones, as well as select adipose-derived hormones, as risk factors or potential treatments for ischemic stroke. In addition, the potential for relaxin, a lesser studied sex hormone, as a novel treatment option for ischemic stroke is explored.

In Vitro and In Vivo Characterization of Novel Stable Peptidic Ghrelin Analogs: Beneficial Effects in the Settings of Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Anorexia in Mice.

Ghrelin, the only known orexigenic gut hormone produced primarily in the stomach, has lately gained attention as a potential treatment of anorexia and cachexia. However, its biologic stability is highly limited; therefore, a number of both peptide and nonpeptide ghrelin analogs have been synthesized. In this study, we provide in vitro and in vivo characterization of a series of novel peptide growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R1a) agonists, both under nonpathologic conditions and in the context of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced anorexia. These analogs were based on our previous series modified by replacing the Ser3 with diaminopropionic acid (Dpr), the N-terminal Gly with sarcosine, and Phe4 with various noncoded amino acids. New analogs were further modified by replacing the n-octanoyl bound to Dpr3 with longer or unsaturated fatty acid residues, by incorporation of the second fatty acid residue into the molecule, or by shortening the peptide chain. These modifications preserved the ability of ghrelin analogs to bind to the membranes of cells transfected with GHS-R1a, as well as the GHS-R1a signaling activation. The selected analogs exhibited long-lasting and potent orexigenic effects after a single s.c. administration in mice. The stability of new ghrelin analogs in mice after s.c. administration was significantly higher when compared with ghrelin and [Dpr3]ghrelin, with half-lives of approximately 2 hours. A single s.c. injection of the selected ghrelin analogs in mice with LPS-induced anorexia significantly increased food intake via the activation of orexigenic pathways and normalized blood levels of proinflammatory cytokines, demonstrating the anti-inflammatory potential of the analogs.

Design and evaluation of novel natriuretic peptide derivatives with improved pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties.

C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) and its receptor, natriuretic peptide receptor B (NPR-B), are potent positive regulators of endochondral bone growth, making the CNP pathway one of the most promising therapeutic targets for the treatment of growth failure. However, the administration of exogenous CNP is not fully effective, due to its rapid clearance in vivo. Modification of CNP to potentially druggable derivatives may result in increased resistance to proteolytic degradation, longer plasma half-life (T1/2), and better distribution to target tissues. In the present study, we designed and evaluated CNP/ghrelin chimeric peptides as novel CNP derivatives. We have previously reported that the ghrelin C-terminus increases peptide metabolic stability. Therefore, we combined the 17-membered, internal disulfide ring portion of CNP with the C-terminal portion of ghrelin. The resultant peptide displayed improved biokinetics compared to CNP, with increased metabolic stability and longer plasma T1/2. Repeated subcutaneous administration of the chimeric peptide to mice resulted in a significant acceleration in longitudinal growth, whereas CNP(1-22) did not. These results suggest that the ghrelin C-terminus improves the stability of CNP, and the chimeric peptide may be useful as a novel therapeutic agent for growth failure and short stature.

From Belly to Brain: Targeting the Ghrelin Receptor in Appetite and Food Intake Regulation.

Ghrelin is the only known peripherally-derived orexigenic hormone, increasing appetite and subsequent food intake. The ghrelinergic system has therefore received considerable attention as a therapeutic target to reduce appetite in obesity as well as to stimulate food intake in conditions of anorexia, malnutrition and cachexia. As the therapeutic potential of targeting this hormone becomes clearer, it is apparent that its pleiotropic actions span both the central nervous system and peripheral organs. Despite a wealth of research, a therapeutic compound specifically targeting the ghrelin system for appetite modulation remains elusive although some promising effects on metabolic function are emerging. This is due to many factors, ranging from the complexity of the ghrelin receptor (Growth Hormone Secretagogue Receptor, GHSR-1a) internalisation and heterodimerization, to biased ligand interactions and compensatory neuroendocrine outputs. Not least is the ubiquitous expression of the GHSR-1a, which makes it impossible to modulate centrallymediated appetite regulation without encroaching on the various peripheral functions attributable to ghrelin. It is becoming clear that ghrelin's central signalling is critical for its effects on appetite, body weight regulation and incentive salience of food. Improving the ability of ghrelin ligands to penetrate the blood brain barrier would enhance central delivery to GHSR-1a expressing brain regions, particularly within the mesolimbic reward circuitry.

Ghrelin inhibits high glucose-induced 16HBE cells apoptosis by regulating Wnt/ß-catenin pathway.

Ghrelin has a protective effect on diabetes and its complications. To expound its probable molecular mechanisms, we investigated the effects of ghrelin on high glucose (HG)-induced cell apoptosis and intracellular signaling pathways in cultured human bronchial epithelial cells (16HBE). In this study, we firstly came to conclusion that HG-induced 16HBE apoptosis was significantly inhibited by co-treatment of ghrelin. The molecular mechanism of ghrelin-induced protective effects for lungs is still not understood. We reported here for the first time that ghrelin can not only eliminate apoptosis of 16HBE, but also regulate the disordered cell cycle caused by HG. We speculated here that ghrelin inhibits the apoptosis of 16HBE by regulating the abnormal cell cycle to some extent. The mechanism may be that ghrelin up-regulates the expression of cyclin D1 via regulating Wnt/ß-catenin pathway, which has an intimate relationship with lung diseases. These results suggested the possible role of ghrelin in treating diabetic lung diseases, especially in view of its low toxicity in humans.

Synthesis and in vitro/in vivo evaluation of novel mono- and trivalent technetium-99m labeled ghrelin peptide complexes as potential diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals.

INTRODUCTION: Ghrelin is an endogenous hormone present in blood. It is released from the oxyntic cells (X/A-like cells) of the stomach and fundus and can exist in two forms: as an acylated and des-acylated ghrelin. Ghrelin is an endogenous ligand of the growth hormone receptor (growth hormone secretagogue receptor, GHS-R). Overexpression of GHS-R1a receptor was identified in cells of different types of tumors (e.g. pituitary adenoma, neuroendocrine tumors of the thyroid, lung, breast, gonads, prostate, stomach, colorectal, endocrine and non-endocrine pancreatic tumors). This fact suggests that gamma radionuclide labeled ghrelin peptide may be considered as a potential diagnostic radiopharmaceutical. METHODS: Ghrelin peptide labeled with mono- and trivalent technetium-99m complexes, (99m)Tc-Lys-GHR, has been prepared on the n.c.a. scale. The physicochemical (stability, charge, shape, lipophilicity) and biological (receptor affinity, biodistribution) properties of the conjugates have been studied relevant to use the conjugates as receptor-based diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals. RESULTS: The obtained conjugates [(99m)Tc(CO)3LN,O(CN-Lys-GHR)](+), (99m)Tc(CO)3LS,O(CN-Lys-GHR) and (99m)Tc(NS3)(CN-Lys-GHR) show different shape, charge, lipophilicity and two of them, (99m)Tc(CO)3LS,O(CN-Lys-GHR) and (99m)Tc(NS3)(CN-Lys-GHR), high stability in neutral aqueous solutions, even in the presence of excess concentration of histidine/cysteine competitive standard ligands or human serum. The in vitro binding affinity of (99m)Tc-Lys-GHR conjugates with respect to growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R1a) present on DU-145 cells was in the range of IC50 from 45 to 54 nM. The conjugate (99m)Tc(CO)3LS,O(CN-Lys-GHR) exhibited excretion route by the liver and kidney in comparable degree, while the more lipophilic conjugate (99m)Tc(NS3)(CN-Lys-GHR)-mainly by the liver. CONCLUSIONS: Basing on the results concerning physicochemical and biochemical properties, the conjugates (99m)Tc(CO)3LS,O(CN-Lys-GHR) and (99m)Tc(NS3)(CN-Lys-GHR) might be considered to be promising models for diagnostic radiopharmaceutical.

Clinical effects of ghrelin on gastrointestinal involvement in patients with systemic sclerosis.

The majority of patients with systemic sclerosis (SSc) have gastrointestinal (GI) tract involvement, but therapies using prokinetic agents are usually unsatisfactory. Ghrelin stimulates gastric motility in healthy human volunteers. In this study, we investigated whether ghrelin could improve gastric emptying in patients with gastrointestinal symptoms due to SSc. The study was performed in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover fashion on two occasions. Ten SSc patients with GI tract involvement received an infusion of either ghrelin (5.0 µg/kg) or saline, and gastric emptying rate was evaluated by ¹³C-acetic acid breath test. Gastric emptying was significantly accelerated by ghrelin infusion in patients with SSc (ghrelin vs. saline: 43.3 ± 11.4 min vs. 53.4 ± 5.4 min, P=0.03). No serious adverse effects were observed. Our results suggest that ghrelin might represent a new therapeutic approach for GI tract involvement in patients with SSc.

Physiologic concentrations of exogenously infused ghrelin reduces insulin secretion without affecting insulin sensitivity in healthy humans.

BACKGROUND: Infusion of ghrelin to supraphysiologic levels inhibits glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, reduces insulin sensitivity, and worsens glucose tolerance in humans. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of lower doses of ghrelin on insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity in healthy men and women. METHODS: Acyl ghrelin (0.2 and 0.6 nmol kg(-1) h(-1)) or saline was infused for 225 minutes in 16 healthy subjects on 3 separate occasions in randomized order. An i.v. glucose tolerance test was performed, and the insulin sensitivity index (SI) was derived from the minimal model. Insulin secretion was measured as the acute insulin response to glucose (AIRg) and the disposition index was computed as AIRg × SI. RESULTS: Ghrelin infusions at 0.2 and 0.6 nmol kg(-1) h(-1) raised steady-state plasma total ghrelin levels 2.2- and 6.1-fold above fasting concentrations. Neither dose of ghrelin altered fasting plasma insulin, glucose, or SI, but both doses reduced insulin secretion compared with the saline control, computed either as AIRg (384 ± 75 and 354 ± 65 vs 520 ± 110 pM · min [mean ± SEM], respectively; P < .01 for both low- and high-dose vs saline) or disposition index (2238 ± 421 and 2067 ± 396 vs 3339 ± 705, respectively; P < .02 for both comparisons). The high-dose ghrelin infusion also decreased glucose tolerance. CONCLUSIONS: Ghrelin infused to levels occurring in physiologic states such as starvation decreases insulin secretion without affecting insulin sensitivity. These findings are consistent with a role for endogenous ghrelin in the regulation of insulin secretion and suggest that ghrelin antagonism could improve ß-cell function.

The pharmacokinetics of acyl, des-acyl, and total ghrelin in healthy human subjects.

BACKGROUND: Ghrelin stimulates GH secretion and regulates energy and glucose metabolism. The two circulating isoforms, acyl (AG) and des-acyl (DAG) ghrelin, have distinct metabolic effects and are under active investigation for their therapeutic potentials. However, there is only limited data on the pharmacokinetics of AG and DAG. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate key pharmacokinetic parameters of AG, DAG, and total ghrelin in healthy men and women. METHODS: In study 1, AG (1, 3, and 5 µg/kg per h) was infused over 65 min in 12 healthy (8 F/4 M) subjects in randomized order. In study 2, AG (1 µg/kg per h), DAG (4 µg/kg per h), or both were infused over 210 min in ten healthy individuals (5 F/5 M). Plasma AG and DAG were measured using specific two-site ELISAs (study 1 and 2), and total ghrelin with a commercial RIA (study 1). Pharmacokinetic parameters were estimated by non-compartmental analysis. RESULTS: After the 1, 3, and 5 µg/kg per h doses of AG, there was a dose-dependent increase in the maximum concentration (C(max)) and area under the curve (AUC(0-last)) of AG and total ghrelin. Among the different AG doses, there was no difference in the elimination half-life, systemic clearance (CL), and volume of distribution. DAG had decreased CL relative to AG. The plasma DAG:AG ratio was ~2:1 during steady-state infusion of AG. Infusion of AG caused an increase in DAG, but DAG administration did not change plasma AG. Ghrelin administration did not affect plasma acylase activity. CONCLUSIONS: The pharmacokinetics of AG and total ghrelin appears to be linear and proportional in the dose range tested. AG and DAG have very distinct metabolic fates in the circulation. There is deacylation of AG in the plasma but no evidence of acylation.

Standard sample collections for blood ghrelin measurements.

BACKGROUND: Octanoyl modification of ghrelin is rapidly hydrolyzed to des-acyl ghrelin in blood samples. Owing to the increased interest in ghrelin measurement, a standardized method of sample collection is required. METHODS: This chapter investigates the effect of a variety of anticoagulants and storage conditions on ghrelin stability. Experiment 1 evaluates the effects of anticoagulants on ghrelin measurements. Experiment 2 evaluates the effect of plasma pH on ghrelin stability. Experiment 3 evaluates the mechanisms of degradation of the active form of ghrelin in plasma. Experiment 4 investigates the kinetics of ghrelin following intravenous injection of rat ghrelin. RESULTS: In whole blood and plasma, octanoylated ghrelin is highly unstable. The collection of blood samples with EDTA-aprotinin under cooled conditions was appropriate to maintain ghrelin stability. Acidification of plasma to pH 3-4 and storage at 4°C maintained ghrelin stability. The degradation of ghrelin was shown to be due to the hydrolysis to des-acyl ghrelin. After intravenous administration to rats, plasma ghrelin levels rapidly decreased with a half-life of 8 min. CONCLUSION: The results showed that the ghrelin values measured in human blood samples were markedly affected by the conditions of collection and storage, the pH, and the RIA method in measurement. Measuring the ghrelin values of the active form is useful for studying plasma ghrelin changes over short time periods. As ghrelin is highly unstable, it is necessary to standardize the preparation of samples to ensure reliable ghrelin measurements.

In vitro and in vivo stability and pharmacokinetic profile of unacylated ghrelin (UAG) analogues.

Ghrelin, an endocrine hormone predominantly produced by the stomach, exists in acylated and unacylated forms in the circulation. Unacylated ghrelin (UAG), the more abundant form in blood, possesses similar, independent or opposite physiological actions as acylated ghrelin (AG). AZP502, a linear 8-amino acid peptide from the central region of UAG (UAG(6-13)), and its full (AZP531) and partially (AZP533) cyclised derivatives, exhibit the same pharmacological profile as UAG both in vitro and in vivo, independently of AG receptor binding. We investigated the stability of these three fragments in vitro in human blood samples and in vivo after subcutaneous and intravenous injection in rats and dogs using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. In both species, AZP502 is rapidly degraded generating two major metabolites. Partial cyclisation of AZP502 and acylation at its N-terminus (AZP533 peptide) improves its stability in human plasma in vitro. Full cyclisation of AZP502 (AZP531 peptide) also completely protects the peptide from peptidase degradation in vitro in human blood samples. Moreover this cyclisation strongly improves the stability and the bioavailability of this peptide in vivo in both dogs and rats (mean bioavailability of 10-15% and 85-95% for AZP502 and AZP531 respectively). Taken together these results support the rationale for developing AZP531 as a long-acting UAG analogue for subcutaneous injection for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus and other metabolic disorders.

Design, evaluation, and comparison of ghrelin receptor agonists and inverse agonists as suitable radiotracers for PET imaging.

Ghrelin agonist and inverse agonist radiotracers, suitable for positron emission tomography (PET), were developed to study the behavior of ghrelin receptor ligands in vivo and for further design of druggable peptides. The target peptides were synthesized on solid support and conjugated to the bifunctional chelator 1,4,7-triazacyclononane,1-glutaric acid-4,7-acetic acid (NODAGA), which is known to form a stable complex with Ga(3+). Complexation with (68)Ga could be achieved under mild conditions and led to radiotracers with high radiochemical purity and specific activity. The biological activity of the radiotracers was evaluated in vitro by an inositol phosphate turnover assay. Pharmacokinetic profile and metabolic stability of the (68)Ga-NODAGA-radiotracers were investigated by small animal PET in rodent. Ghrelin derived agonists presented very high kidney accumulation, negligible tissue distribution, fast blood clearance, and poor stability in blood. Contrarily, the inverse agonist radiotracer exhibited very high stability in blood, large diffusion in tissues, reasonable kidney and liver metabolism, and slow blood clearance. This pharmacokinetic profile makes the ghrelin inverse agonist motif KwFwLL-CONH(2) suitable for further development of radiotracers and a promising lead to design peptide-based therapeutics against obesity.

The effect of ghrelin pretreatment on epididymal sperm quality and tissue antioxidant enzyme activities after testicular ischemia/reperfusion in rats

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Ghrelin, the endogenous ligand for growth hormone secretagogue receptor, has been reported to prevent ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in various tissues by its antioxidant activity. Therefore, this study was aimed to investigate the effect of ghrelin on sperm quality and antioxidant enzyme activity in a rat testicular ischemia/reperfusion injury model. Forty-two male Wistar rats were divided into groups control, I/R, and I/R plus ghrelin. The right testes were rotated 720° for 1 h and were allowed to reperfuse for 4 h and 30 days thereafter. Ghrelin (40 nmol/kg IP) or vehicle (physiological saline) was administrated 15 min before reperfusion. After 4 h of reperfusion, a right orchiectomy was performed to measure the biochemical parameters. In addition, the sperm was collected from the epididymis after 30 days of reperfusion, and sperm characteristics were examined. The malondialdehyde levels of the testis tissues were significantly increased, but a statistically significant decrease was found in the superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase activities in the I/R group as compared with the control, indicating I/R injury. The sperm evaluation showed a significant reduction in all characteristics resulted from I/R compared with the control. In the ghrelin-treated group, the malondialdehyde values were significantly lowered, and only enzyme activity of glutathione peroxidase showed significant increases compared with the I/R group. Ghrelin significantly enhanced sperm motility, movement, and concentration but did not prevent I/R-induced reduction in membrane integrity in the testes of rats compared to the I/R group. Our results suggest that ghrelin treatment has a protective role on IR-induced testicular injury, and this effect may be due to its antioxidant properties (AU)

A new strategy for metabolic stabilization of motilin using the C-terminal part of ghrelin.

Ghrelin consists of 28 amino acid residues with an octanoyl modification at the third serine residue. Recently we have found that the C-terminal part of ghrelin protects the ester bond of 3-octanoyled serine from plasma esterases and plays the essential role to prolong the plasma half-life and to show its biological activity in vivo. In the present study, we researched whether the C-terminal part of ghrelin has a potential to prolong the plasma half-life of motilin, by comparing the pharmacokinetics of various chimeric peptides of ghrelin and motilin. Motilin is another gastro-intestinal peptide hormone related with ghrelin structurally, binding to the same family of G protein-coupled receptors. Chimeric peptides were designed to be composed of motilin(1-12) fragment, the active core binding to the motilin receptor, GPR38, and C-terminal part of ghrelin. The modification of motilin(1-12) fragment by C-terminal part of ghrelin hardly influenced its agonist activity to GPR38 and almost all these chimeric peptides showed more than two times longer plasma half-lives than motilin in rats. From the relationship between structures of chimeric peptides and their corresponding plasma half-lives, the mid-region of ghrelin rich in basic amino acids ((15)RKESKK(20)) was considered to be the most important in prolonging the plasma half-life of motilin. The deletion of these fragments or replacement of 17th glutamic acid with a neutral amino acid resulted in short plasma half-lives. In conclusion, our data suggested that the C-terminal part of ghrelin has a potential to improve the biokinetics of motilin probably by a metabolic stabilizing effect.

Regulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase activity/expression in rat hearts from ghrelin-treated rats

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The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of ghrelin on protein kinase B (Akt) and mitogen-activated protein kinase p42/44 (ERK1/2) activation as well as ghrelin effects on inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase (iNOS; for gene Nos2) activity/expression in rat hearts. Male Wistar rats were treated with ghrelin (0.3 nmol/5 ìl) or an equal volume of phosphate-buffered saline, injected every 24 h into the lateral cerebral ventricle for 5 days and 2 h after the last treatment the animals were sacrificed. Serum NO, L-arginine (L-Arg), and arginase activity were measured spectrophotometrically. For phosphorylation of Akt, ERK1/2, and iNOS protein expression, Western blot method was used. The expression of Nos2 mRNA was measured by the quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Treatment with ghrelin significantly increased NO production in serum by 1.4-fold compared with control. The concentration of L-Arg was significantly higher in ghrelin-treated rats than in control while arginase activity was significantly lower in ghrelin-treated than in control hearts. Ghrelin treatment increased phosphorylation of Akt by 1.9-fold and ERK1/2 by 1.6-fold and increased iNOS expression by 2.5-fold compared with control. In addition, ghrelin treatment increased Nos2 gene expression by 2.2-fold as determined by qRT-PCR. These results indicate that ghrelin regulation of iNOS expression/activity is mediated via Akt/ERK1/2 signaling pathway. These results may be relevant to understanding molecular mechanisms underlying direct cardiovascular actions of ghrelin (AU)

The effects of DL-AP5 and glutamate on ghrelin-induced feeding behavior in 3-h food-deprived broiler cockerels

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This study was designed to examine the effects of intracerebroventricular injection of DL-AP5 (N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist) and glutamate on ghrelin-induced feeding behavior in 3-h food-deprived (FD3) broiler cockerels. At first, guide cannula was surgically implanted in the right lateral ventricle of chickens. In experiment 1, birds were intracerebroventricularly injected with 0, 2.5, 5, and 10 nmol of DL-AP5. In experiment 2, chickens received 5 nmol DL-AP5 prior to the injection of 0.6 nmol ghrelin. In experiment 3, birds were administered with 0.6 nmol ghrelin after 300 nmol glutamate, and the cumulative feed intake was determined at 3-h postinjection. The results of this study showed that the intracerebroventricular injection of DL-AP5 increased food consumption in FD3 broiler cockerels (P ¡Ü 0.05), and this increase occurs in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, the decreased food intake induced with the intracerebroventricular injection of ghrelin was additively enhanced by pretreatment with glutamate, and this effect was attenuated by DL-AP5 (..)(AU)

Scheduled feeding results in adipogenesis and increased acylated ghrelin.

Ghrelin, known to stimulate adipogenesis, displays an endogenous secretory rhythmicity closely related to meal patterns. Therefore, a chronic imposed feeding schedule might induce modified ghrelin levels and consequently adiposity. Growing Wistar rats were schedule-fed by imposing a particular fixed feeding schedule of 3 meals/day without caloric restriction compared with total daily control intake. After 14 days, their body composition was measured by DEXA and compared with ad libitum-fed controls and to rats daily intraperitoneal injection with ghrelin. Feeding patterns, circadian activity, and pulsatile acylated ghrelin variations were monitored. After 14 days, rats on the imposed feeding schedule displayed, despite an equal daily calorie intake, a slower growth rate compared with ad libitum-fed controls. Moreover, schedule-fed rats exhibiting a feeding pattern with intermittent fasting periods had a higher fat/lean ratio compared with ad libitum-fed controls. Interestingly, ghrelin-treated rats also showed an increase in fat mass, but the fat/lean ratio was not significantly increased compared with controls. In the schedule-fed rats, spontaneous activity and acylated ghrelin levels were increased and associated with the scheduled meals, indicating anticipatory effects. Our results suggest that scheduled feeding, associated with intermittent fasting periods, even without nutrient/calorie restriction on a daily basis, results in adipogenesis. This repartitioning effect is associated with increased endogenous acylated ghrelin levels. This schedule-fed model points out the delicate role of meal frequency in adipogenesis and provides an investigative tool to clarify any effects of endogenous ghrelin without the need for ghrelin administration.