The duration of pregnancy in ecologically-challenged area. The effects of environmental pollution with aromatic hydrocarbons on the angiogenesis and elements of the mesenchymal tissue of the human placenta.

INTRODUCTION: The literature presents only few reports regarding the effects of elevated levels of aromatic hydrocarbons (AH) on the functions of the human placenta. The effects of environmental contamination with AH (including phenol and 1-hydroxypyrene) have certain negative effects on parenchymal organs such as human placenta. OBJECTIVE: The paper aimed to assess the effects of elevated levels of AH on the placental angiogenesis and elements of the mesenchymal tissue of the placenta. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Tissue material from 50 afterbirths from Plock constituted a study group, whereas 50 afterbirths from Kutno constituted a control group. Immunohistochemical reactions with the peroxidase method using LSAB kits (DAKO) were performed. The extent and intensity of reactions were analysed. The levels of phenols and 1-hydroxypyrene in the excreted urine of pregnant women (undergoing delivery) were detected using gas chromatography and colorimetry. RESULTS: The levels of phenol and 1-hydroxypyrene in the excreted urine were demonstrated to be statistically significantly higher in patients living in the area of Plock. Statistically significantly higher expression of antibodies indicating placental angiogenesis was observed in the placentas in the Plock group (p < 0.01). Moreover, lower expression of vimentin indicating reactions with proteins in mesenchymal cells was observed in the Kutno group (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Pregnancy in the environment with elevated levels of aromatic hydrocarbons has detrimental effects on the human placenta. The foetus is protected by activation of adaptation and compensation mechanisms that are manifested as significant angiogenesis and greater development and differentiation of mesenchymal cells compared to the control group.

Urinary polyaromatic hydrocarbons are associated with adult emphysema, chronic bronchitis, asthma, and infections: US NHANES, 2011-2012.

Links between environmental chemicals and human health have emerged over the last few decades, but the effects from polyaromatic hydrocarbons were less studied, compared to other commonly known environmental chemicals such as heavy metals, phthalates, arsenic, phenols, pesticides, etc. Therefore, the aim of the study was to examine the relationships of urinary polyaromatic hydrocarbons and adult respiratory health conditions using a large human sample in a national and population-based setting in recent years. Data were retrieved from United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 2011-2012 including demographics, self-reported health conditions, and urinary polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Statistical analyses including chi-square test, t test, and survey-weighted logistic regression modeling were performed. Of 5560 American adults aged 20-80, urinary 2-hydroxyfluorene and 3-hydroxyfluorene were positively associated with emphysema (OR, 1.60, 95 % CI 1.26 to 2.03, P = 0.001 and OR, 1.42, 95 % CI 1.15 to 1.77, P = 0.003, respectively) and chronic bronchitis (OR, 1.42, 95 % CI 1.04 to 1.94, P = 0.031 and OR, 1.40, 95 % CI 1.03 to 1.91, P = 0.036, respectively), while 2-hydroxynaphthalene (2-naphthol) was likely to be borderline associated with emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Conversely, urinary 1-hydroxyphenanthrene, 3-hydroxyphenanthrene, 1-hydroxypyrene, and 4-hydroxyphenanthrene were inversely associated with asthma and infections. Urinary polyaromatic hydrocarbons are associated with adult respiratory health conditions, although the causality cannot be established. For future research, studies using large human sample across regions to longitudinally monitor would be suggested. For practice and policy-making, regulation on minimizing polyaromatic hydrocarbons exposure to protect respiratory health might need to be considered in future health and environmental policies and intervention programs.

Urinary polyaromatic hydrocarbons are associated with adult celiac disease and kidney stones: USA NHANES, 2011-2012.

Links between environmental chemicals and human health have emerged over the last few decades, but the effects from polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were less studied, compared to other commonly known environmental chemicals such as heavy metals, phthalates, arsenic, phenols, and pesticides. Therefore, it was aimed to study the relationships of urinary PAH and adult digestive conditions using a large human sample in a national and population-based study in recent years. Data was retrieved from the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 2011-2012 including demographics, self-reported health conditions, and urinary PAH. Statistical analyses included chi-square test, t test, survey-weighted logistic regression modeling, and population attributable risk (PAR) estimation. Of 5560 American adults aged 20-80 and included in the statistical analysis, urinary 4-hydroxyphenanthrene was significantly associated with celiac disease (odds ratio (OR) 1.61, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.14-2.26, P = 0.009). In addition, urinary 2-hydroxyfluorene (OR 1.35, 95% CI 1.02-1.78, P = 0.038), 3-hydroxyfluorene (OR 1.35, 95% CI 1.07-1.70, P = 0.015), 1-hydroxyphenanthrene (OR 1.48, 95% CI 1.08-2.03, P = 0.017), 1-hydroxypyrene (OR 1.36, 95% CI 1.05-1.77, P = 0.023), and 2-hydroxynapthalene (OR 1.25, 95% CI 1.00-1.58, P = 0.054) were significantly associated with kidney stones, although not necessarily failing kidney. There were no statistically significant associations observed in the relationship of urinary PAH and liver problems, although higher levels of PAHs were observed. Urinary PAHs are associated with adult digestive conditions, although the causality cannot be established. From the research perspective, longitudinal monitoring from observational studies and experimental research understanding mechanism would be suggested. Regulation of minimizing PAHs exposure might need to be considered in future health and environmental policies.

Switching from usual brand cigarettes to a tobacco-heating cigarette or snus: Part 2. Biomarkers of exposure.

A randomized, multi-center study of adult cigarette smokers switched to tobacco-heating cigarettes, snus or ultra-low machine yield tobacco-burning cigarettes (50/group) was conducted, and subjects' experience with the products was followed for 24 weeks. Differences in biomarkers of tobacco exposure between smokers and never smokers at baseline and among groups relative to each other and over time were assessed. Results indicated reduced exposure to many potentially harmful constituents found in cigarette smoke following product switching. Findings support differences in exposure from the use of various tobacco products and are relevant to the understanding of a risk continuum among tobacco products (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02061917).

Urinary heavy metals, phthalates and polyaromatic hydrocarbons independent of health events are associated with adult depression: USA NHANES, 2011-2012.

Links between environmental chemicals and human health have emerged, but the effects on mental health such as depression were less studied. Therefore, it was aimed to study the relationships between different sets of urinary environmental chemical concentrations and adult depression in a national and population-based setting in recent years. Data was retrieved from the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey in 2011-2012 including demographics, serum measurements, lifestyle factors, self-reported health conditions and urinary chemical concentrations. Depression was determined by using the Patient Health Questionnaire with a cutoff point at 9/10. Chi-square test, t test and survey-weighted logistic regression modeling were performed. Among 5560 American adults aged 20-80 years, 363 (7.8%) people were classified as having depression (Patient Health Questionnaire score ≥ 10). They tended to have history of health events. After full adjustment including urinary creatinine; demographic characteristics; lifestyle factors; health conditions (such as cardiovascular, neurological, respiratory, digestive and bone diseases, and injury); and subsample weighing; and higher levels of manganese, tin, and phthalates including mono-2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl, mono-n-butyl, mono-isobutyl, and mono-benzyl were associated with adult depression. Similarly, urinary polyaromatic hydrocarbons including 2-hydroxyfluorene, 3-hydroxyfluorene, 9-hydroxyfluorene, 1-hydroxyphenanthrene, 2-hydroxyphenanthrene, 3-hydroxyphenanthrene, 1-hydroxypyrene, 1-hydroxynaphthalene (1-naphthol), 2-hydroxynaphthalene (2-naphthol) and 4-hydroxyphenanthrene were associated with depression. There were no associations observed in urinary arsenic, phenols, parabens, pesticides, perchlorate, nitrate, thiocyanate and polyfluorinated compounds. Urinary heavy metal, phthalates and polyaromatic hydrocarbons were associated with adult depression, being independent of health events. Further elimination of such harmful chemicals might need to be considered in future mental health and environmental policies.

Are urinary polyaromatic hydrocarbons associated with adult hypertension, heart attack, and cancer? USA NHANES, 2011-2012.

Links between environmental chemicals and human health have emerged over the last few decades, but the effects from polyaromatic hydrocarbons were less studied, compared to other commonly known environmental chemicals such as heavy metals, phthalates, arsenic, phenols and pesticides. Therefore, it was aimed to study the relationships of urinary polyaromatic hydrocarbons and adult cardiovascular disease and cancer using human sample in a national and population-based study in recent years. Data was retrieved from US National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 2011-2012, including demographics, self-reported health conditions and urinary polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Statistical analyses included chi-square test, t test, survey-weighted logistic regression modeling and population attributable risk (PAR) estimation. Of 5560 American adults aged 20-80 and included in the statistical analysis, urinary polyaromatic hydrocarbons (representatively in one-third sample) were observed to be higher in people with cardiovascular disease and total cancer. In particular, urinary 4-hydroxyphenanthrene was associated with hypertension (odds ratio (OR) 1.33, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.00-1.76, P = 0.048, PAR 5.1%), urinary 1-hydroxypyrene was significantly associated with heart attack (OR 1.47, 95%CI 1.05-2.06, P = 0.027, PAR 1.7%), and urinary 2-hydroxynapthalene (2-naphthol) was associated with cancer (OR 1.46, 95%CI 1.12-1.90, P = 0.008, PAR 3.9%). Urinary polyaromatic hydrocarbons were associated with adult hypertension, heart attack and cancer, although the causality cannot be established. From the research perspective, future studies with a longitudinal or experimental approach would be suggested. From the law and public health perspectives, regulation on minimizing exposure to polyaromatic hydrocarbons might need to be considered in future health and environmental policies and intervention programs.

Biomarkers of exposure to aromatic hydrocarbons and methyl tert-butyl ether in petrol station workers.

This cross-sectional study was aimed at reconstructing the exposure to gasoline in 102 petrol station attendants by environmental and biological monitoring of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene (BTEX) and biomonitoring of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE). Airborne BTEX were higher for manual refuelers than self-service assistants and were highly correlated with each other. Significant relationships were found between airborne BTX and the corresponding urinary solvents (U-BTX) and beween airborne B and urinary MTBE (U-MTBE). Smokers eliminated higher values of U-B, trans,trans-muconic (t,t-MA) and S-phenylmercapturic (S-PMA) acids but not U-MTBE. All these biomarkers were, however, significantly raised during the shift, independently from smoking. Linear regression confirmed that occupational exposure was a main predictor of U-MTBE, U-B and S-PMA values, both the latter confounded by smoking habits. The study supports the usefulness of biomonitoring even at low exposure levels.

Environmental tobacco smoke exposure among casino dealers.

OBJECTIVE: This study quantified casino dealers' occupational exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS). METHODS: We measured casino dealers' exposure to ETS components by analyzing full-shift air and preshift and postshift urine samples. RESULTS: Casino dealers were exposed to nicotine, 4-vinyl pyridine, benzene, toluene, naphthalene, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, solanesol, and respirable suspended particulates. Levels of 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) in urine increased significantly during an 8-hour work shift both with and without adjustment for creatinine clearance. Creatinine-unadjusted cotinine significantly increased during the 8-hour shift, but creatinine-adjusted cotinine did not increase significantly. CONCLUSIONS: Casino dealers at the three casinos were exposed to airborne ETS components and absorbed an ETS-specific component into their bodies, as demonstrated by detectable levels of urinary NNAL. The casinos should ban smoking on their premises and offer employee smoking cessation programs.

Determination of 2,5-toluylenediamine (2,5-TDA) and aromatic amines in urine after personal application of hair dyes: kinetics and doses.

The personal use of hair dye products is currently under discussion due to the potentially increased risk of bladder cancer among long-time users described in epidemiological literature. In order to investigate the dermal absorption of aromatic diamines as well as aromatic amines possibly present as contaminants in hair dye formulations, we conducted a biomonitoring study under real-life conditions and calculated kinetics and doses for the urinary excretion. Urine samples of two female subjects were collected for a time period of 48 h after personal application of a hair dye cream and analysed for aromatic diamines as well as o-toluidine and 4-aminobiphenyl using highly specific GC/MS-methods. 2,5-Toluylenediamine (2,5-TDA) as active ingredient of hair dyes is rapidly absorbed dermally. After a distribution phase of 12 h, 2,5-TDA is excreted with a half-time of 8 h. Excretion was 90% complete within 24 h after application. The doses of 2,5-TDA excreted within 48 h were 700 µg for application of a brown-reddish hair dye cream and 1.5 mg for the application of a brown-black hair dye cream. Urinary 4-aminobiphenyl as well as contaminations with other aromatic diamines were not detectable in our study. Due to the artifactual formation of o-toluidine in the presence of high concentrations of urinary 2,5-TDA, our results could not prove an increased internal exposure of humans to carcinogenic amines after personal application of hair dyes.

A pilot study on using urinary 1-hydroxypyrene biomarker for exposure to PAHs in Beijing.

To study whether the urinary 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) could be the biomarker of atmospheric PAHs, a small-scale pilot study was carried out on the relation of 1-OHP vs PAHs with the traffic policemen in Beijing of smokers and nonsmokers to be subgroups in both the exposure and control groups. Both the PAHs and 1-OHP were analyzed with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The ambient concentrations of PAHs were different at the different sites (the average sum of PAHs (TPAH) were 12.36, 16.27, 18.37 ng/m(3) at the suburban residential, police station and high traffic area, respectively.), but considerably lower than the personal-exposure concentrations (the average TPAH were 65.84 and 47.28 ng/m(3) for patrol cars and inspection station, respectively). Pyrene was correlated well with BaP and the summed PAHs (TPAH), with the correlation coefficients (R) of 0.79, 0.87 for ambient level and 0.92, 0.96 for personal exposure, respectively. The average of 1-hydroxypyrene of smokers and nonsmokers were 0.39, 0.15 mumol/mol creatinine in control group and 0.57, 0.33 mumol/mol creatinine in exposure group, respectively. The better correlation of pyrene to BaP and TPAH especially for personal exposure samples indicated that the probability of urinary 1-hydroxypyrene, the metabolite of pyrene, to be the biomarker of total PAH. Nonsmokers in the exposure and control groups had indistinguishable levels of 1-OHP, presumably because the ambient levels of pyrene were so similar (the average were 3.25, 3.20 ng/m(3) at the police station and high traffic area, respectively.). Smokers in the control group had significantly higher 1-OHP than that of the nonsmokers, but showed indistinguishable differences in the exposure group. These results suggested that urinary 1-OHP could be a biomarker of PAHs only when the level of PAHs was at a relatively higher level. Smoking as an important influencing factor need to be controlled carefully.

Exposure to MTBE, TAME and aromatic hydrocarbons during gasoline pump maintenance, repair and inspection.

The exposure of gasoline pump repairers and inspectors to gasoline was studied at service stations and repair shops in Finland in April-June 2004. The average air temperature ranged from 7 degrees C to 16 degrees C and wind speed from 2.5 to 7 m/s. The gasoline blends contained mixtures of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) and tert-amyl methyl ether (TAME), the total content of oxygenates being 11-12%. The content of benzene was <1%. Breathing zone air was collected during the work task using passive monitors. The mean sampling period was 4.5 h. The mean TWA-8 h concentrations for MTBE, TAME, hexane, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene were 4.5, 1.3, 0.55, 0.23, 2.2, 0.26 and 1.1 mg/m3, respectively. None of the individual benzene concentrations exceeded the binding limit value for benzene (3.25 mg/m3). The sum concentration of MTBE and TAME in urine was between 8.9 and 530 nmol/l in individual post-shift samples. The individual sum concentrations of the metabolites tert-butyl alcohol and tert-amyl alcohol collected the following morning after the exposure ranged from 81 to 916 nmol/l. All individual results were below corresponding biological action levels. Exposure to aromatic hydrocarbons was estimated from post-shift urine samples, with benzene showing the highest concentration (range 4.4 and 35 nmol/l in non-smokers). The exposure levels were similar to those measured in previous studies during unloading of tanker lorries and railway wagons. The results indicated a slightly higher exposure for inspectors, who calibrated fuel pump gauges at the service stations, than for pump repairers. No significant skin exposure occurred during the study.

Occupational exposure to aromatic hydrocarbons at a coke plant: Part I. Identification of hydrocarbons in air and their metabolites in urine by a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method.

A method for the qualitative analysis of aromatic hydrocarbons in air and their various urinary metabolites is presented. The air was sampled in charcoal tubes and extracted with carbon disulfide. The hydrocarbons were identified as being aliphatic hydrocarbons (C(9)-C(19)), aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic compounds. The urinary metabolites after enzymatic hydrolysis were analyzed by solid-phase extraction with a styrene-divinylbenzene resin, silylation with N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)acetamide and GC/MS for separation and detection. Satisfactory separation of all compounds investigated was achieved without interference due to matrix peaks. The following compounds were identified in the urine of workers: dimethylphenol isomers, 4-ethyl-1,3-benzenediol, 2-ethoxybenzoic acid and methoxyphenols. Trimethylsilyl derivatives of aromatic hydroxyacids and hydroxymethoxyacids were found in the urine of occupationally exposed workers by means of a silylation procedure.

occupational exposure to aromatic hydrocarbons at a coke plant: Part II. Exposure assessment of volatile organic compounds.

The objective of the study is to assess the external and internal exposures to aromatic hydrocarbons in the tar and oil naphthalene distillation processes at a coke plant. 69 workers engaged as operators in tar and oil naphthalene distillation processes and 25 non-exposed subjects were examined. Personal analyses of the benzene, toluene, xylene isomers, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, indan, indene and acenaphthene in the breathing zone air allowed us to determine the time weighted average exposure levels to the aromatic hydrocarbons listed above. The internal exposure was investigated by measurement of the urinary excretion of naphthols, 2-methylphenol and dimethylphenol isomers by means of gas chromatography with a flame ionization detection (GC/FID). Urine metabolites were extracted after enzymatic hydrolysis by solid-phase extraction with styrene-divinylbenzene resin. The time-weighted average concentrations of the hydrocarbons detected in the breathing zone air shows that the exposure levels of the workers are relatively low in comparison to the exposure limits. Statistically significant differences between average concentrations of aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, xylene isomers) determined at the workplaces in the tar distillation department have been found. Concentrations of the naphthalene and acenaphthene detected in workers from the oil distillation department are higher that those from the tar distillation department. Concentrations of naphthols, 2-methoxyphenol and dimethylphenol isomers in the urine of occupationally exposed workers were significantly higher than those of non-exposed subjects. Concentrations of the 2-methoxyphenol and dimethylphenol isomers in urine were significantly higher for the tar distillation workers, whereas concentrations of naphthols were higher for the oil naphthalene distillation workers. Operators at the tar and naphthalene oil distillation processes are simultaneously exposed to a mixture of different hydrocarbons, mainly benzene and naphthalene homologues.

Urine analysis for the evaluation of environmental exposures to aromatic hydrocarbons.

The authors have developed a dynamic headspace (purge-and-trap) gas chromatographic method, with photoionization detection, for the determination of benzene (C6H6), toluene (C7H8), ethylbenzene (C8H10), and isomeric (o-, m-, p-) xylenes (C8H10) (BTEX) in urine. Detection limits ranged between 15 and 35 ng/l, relative standard deviations between 0.2 and 10%, and accuracy between 80 and 100%. The primary objective of this study was to use this new method to establish baseline concentration data for BTEX in the urine of the general population of Zagreb, Croatia. A second objective was to evaluate the effect of cigarette smoking on those baseline values. BTEX were analyzed in the urine of 72 subjects (36 nonsmokers and 36 smokers) without occupational exposure to BTEX. The nonsmokers had measurable BTEX in their urine, except for ethylbenzene in 13 and o-xylene in 15 of the samples. Values for BTEX were markedly higher among smokers than nonsmokers. Because the sources of BTEX exposure are commonly derived (i.e., vehicle exhausts and smoking), their values in subjects' urine were significantly intercorrelated. Levels of toluene and o-xylene were correlated significantly with the number of cigarettes smoked per day. The use of purge-and-trap gas chromatography with photoionization detection to determine BTEX in urine offers a convenient approach for biological monitoring of the general population. Study data provide referent values for BTEX in urine, which can be used as biomarkers for environmental exposures. Smoking contributes significantly to the urinary concentration of BTEX.

Nonaromatic hydroxylation of bupivacaine during continuous epidural infusion in man.

Less than 11% of the dose of bupivacaine could be accounted for in urine from 10 patients receiving continuous epidural infusions. HPLC analysis of metabolites confirmed (S)-bupivacaine was more extensively metabolised than (R)-bupivacaine, and dealkylation was the predominant metabolic pathway although co-elution of metabolites made quantitation difficult. The percentage of (S)-2',6'-pipecoloxylidide and co-eluting metabolites excreted relative to (R)-2',6'-pipecoloxylidide from three patients was 0.32+/-0.05, while for seven patients it was 1.28+/-0.09. Conversely, the percentage of (S)-3'-hydroxy bupivacaine and co-eluants excreted relative to (R)-2',6'-pipecoloxylidide from the three patients (1.76+/-0.48) was greater than the seven patients (0.19+/-0.09). Urinary metabolites were analysed for evidence of aliphatic hydroxylation of bupivacaine. Chiral liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) on an alpha(1)-glycoprotein column at pH 7 used hydroxylamine acetate as the volatile mobile phase. Compounds tentatively identified as hydroxybupivacaines by MRM were verified by their product ion spectra in a subsequent MS-MS run. Eighteen oxygenated metabolites of bupivacaine were detected, half of which were hydroxylated on nonaromatic groups. Equal numbers of mono- and dihydroxybupivacaines were excreted. There was no evidence to suggest the presence of (S)-4'-hydroxybupivacaine, 2'-hydroxymethylbupivacaine, 3'-hydroxy-2',6'-pipecoloxylidide or a piperidone. The metabolite previously identified as (S)-4'-hydroxybupivacaine was not hydroxylated on the xylyl group.

[Aromatic amines with certain, probable, or possible carcinogenic action: reference values]. / Ammine aromatiche ad azione cancerogena certa, probabile o possibile: valori di riferimento.

The aim of this work is to determine the amount of some aromatic amines in urine of non-exposed people in order to define a reference value. The literature examination has showed that only a small numbers of aromatic amines are usually determined in urine namely: aniline, benzidine, 2-naphtilamine, o-toluidine, 3,3'-dichlorobenzidine, 4-chloro-o-toluidine and 4-chlorobenzidine. On the basis of our experience the analytical method proposed by Lichtenstein is appropriate for obtaining reliable analytical results.

Aromatic and polycyclic hydrocarbons in air and their urinary metabolites in coke plant workers.

This study describes the exposure of coke plant workers to hydrocarbons. Aromatic hydrocarbons (AHs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the breathing zone air and their oxygenated metabolites in the urine of coke plant workers are qualitatively and quantitatively determined. Concentrations of benzene, toluene, naphthalene, m + p-xylene, o-xylene and 14 different PAHs were measured at the different workplaces by personal air sampling. O-cresol, 1- and 2-naphthol, methylhippuric acid, and 1-hydroxypyrene were determined in hydrolyzed urine of workers collected after the work shift. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) method was applied to identify AHs in air and in urine samples. Time-weighted values of exposure to aromatic hydrocarbons at a coke plant were: benzene (0.06-9.82 mg/m3), toluene (0.05-4.71 mg/m3), naphthalene (0.01-3.28 mg/m3), o-xylene (0.01-1.76 mg/m3) and m + p-xylene (0.01-2.62 mg/m3). At the coke batteries, the total concentration of PAHs ranged from 7.27 to 21.92 micrograms/m3. At the sorting department, the total concentration of PAHs were about half this value. Concentration of the urinary metabolites (naphthols and methylhippuric acid) detected in workers at the tar distillation department are three times higher than those for the coke batteries and sorting department workers. A correlation between inhaled toluene, naphthalene, xylene, and urinary excretion of metabolites has been found. Time-weighted average concentrations of AHs in the breathing zone air show that exposure levels of the workers are rather low in comparison to exposure limits. The 1-hydroxypyrene concentration is below 24.75 mumol/mol creatinine. The GC/MS analysis reveals the presence of AHs, mainly benzene and naphthalene homologues. It has been found that coke plant workers are simultaneously exposed to the mixture of aromatic and polycyclic hydrocarbons present in the breathing zone air of a coke plant. Exposure levels are significantly influenced by job categories. Compounds identified in the urine appear to be the products of the hydroxylation of AHs present in the air as well as unmetabolized hydrocarbons.

Analysis of nitroaromatic compounds in urine by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for the biological monitoring of explosives.

Organic nitrocompounds are the most frequently used constituents of explosives and some of them have been evaluated to be highly toxic or even carcinogenic. Human contact with explosives may originate from a variety of sources, including occupational exposure during the production of ammunition as well as environmental exposure due to the contamination of soil and ground water reservoirs on former military production sites and training areas. This paper describes two gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-selected ion monitoring methods for the determination of twelve nitroaromatic compounds in urine (nitrobenzene, 1,2-dinitrobenzene, 1,3-dinitrobenzene, 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene, 2-nitrotoluene, 3-nitrotoluene, 4-nitrotoluene, 2,4-dinitrotoluene, 2,6-dinitrotoluene, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, 2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene, 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene). The analytes are detectable in the lowest microg/l range, with imprecisions of 3-22% within series and 5-29% between series, depending on the compound of interest. Both procedures are rapid and relatively easy to perform and, therefore, are advantageous for the screening of occupationally or environmentally exposed persons. We analysed urine samples obtained from nine workers from an ammunition dismantling workshop and from twelve control persons. 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene was detected in six samples at concentrations between 4 and 43 microg/l. The main metabolites of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene and 2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene, were found in a concentration range from 143 to 16,832 microg/l and from 24 to 5787 microg/l, respectively. Nonconjugated aminodinitrotoluenes were present as varying percentages of the total amount. 2,4-Dinitrotoluene and 2,6-dinitrotoluene were found in two samples (2-9 microg/l). Nitroaromatics were not detectable in urine specimens from control persons.