The evolution of morphological castes under decoupled control.

Eusociality, where units that previously reproduced independently function as one entity, is of major interest in evolutionary biology. Obligate eusociality is characterized by morphologically differentiated castes and reduced conflict. We explore conditions under which morphological castes may arise in the Hymenoptera and factors constraining their evolution. Control over offspring morphology and behaviour seems likely to be decoupled. Provisioners (queens and workers) can influence offspring morphology directly through the nutrition they provide, while adult offspring control their own behaviour. Provisioners may, however, influence worker behaviour indirectly if offspring modify their behaviour in response to their morphology. If manipulation underlies helping, we should not see helping evolve before specialized worker morphology, yet empirical observations suggest that behavioural castes precede morphological castes. We use evolutionary invasion analyses to show how the evolution of a morphologically differentiated worker caste depends on the prior presence of a behavioural caste: specialist worker morphology will be mismatched with behaviour unless some offspring already choose to work. A mother's certainty about her offspring's behaviour is also critical-less certainty results in greater mismatch. We show how baseline worker productivity can affect the likelihood of a morphological trait being favoured by natural selection. We then show how under a decoupled control scenario, morphologically differentiated castes should be less and less likely to be lost as they become more specialized. We also suggest that for eusociality to be evolutionarily irreversible, workers must be unable to functionally replace reproductives and reproductives must be unable to reproduce without help from workers.

Body Part Selection for Size Classification of Two Trichogramma Species.

Body size is an important morphological characteristic that covaries with the quality of parasitoids and predators. Data show that the larger the organism is, the better the biological parameters and the host location by natural enemies in the field. The standard way of evaluating the size of parasitoids of the genus Trichogramma (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) is by measuring the tibia, but using only one body part to estimate the size of organisms can lead to miscalculations. In this paper, commercial Trichogramma pretiosum Riley, 1879 (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) and Trichogramma galloi Zucchi, 1988 (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) were mounted on slides for microscopy and photographed, and the photographs were used to measure their antennae, scutellum, ovipositor, tibia, and wing. Principal component analysis (PCA) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) were performed to select the body part that best represents their size. PCA showed that all body parts represented size in a similar way, and LDA showed that the ovipositor was the most representative. We conclude that the best body parts for representing the size of the Trichogramma species studied are the wing and ovipositor, and at least two body parts are needed to detect two size groups.

Real-time dynamics of aculeate hymenopteran reed gall inquilines in oligotrophic reed beds of anthropogenic and natural origin.

This is the first study providing long-term data on the dynamics of bees and wasps and their parasitoids for the evidence-based management of reed beds. Ten years ago, we identified Lipara (Chloropidae) - induced galls on common reed (Phragmites australis, Poaceae) as a critically important resource for specialized bees and wasps (Hymenoptera: Aculeata). We found that they were surprisingly common in relatively newly formed anthropogenic habitats, which elicited questions about the dynamics of bees and wasps and their parasitoids in newly formed reed beds of anthropogenic origin. Therefore, in the winter and spring of 2022/23, we sampled reed galls from the same set of reed beds of anthropogenic and natural origin as those in 2012/13. At 10 sites, the number of sampled galls was similar in both time periods (80-122% of the value from 2012/13); 12 sites experienced a moderate decline (30-79% of the value from 2012/13), and the number of galls at six sampling sites was only 3-23% of their abundance in 2012/13. Spontaneous development was associated with increasing populations. After 10 years of spontaneous development, the populations of bees and wasps (including their parasitoids) bound to Lipara-induced reed galls increased in abundance and species richness or remained at their previous levels, which was dependent on the sampling site. The only identified threat consisted of reclamation efforts. The effects of habitat age were limited, and the assemblages in habitats of near-natural and anthropogenic origin largely overlapped. However, several species were consistently present at lower abundances in the anthropogenic habitats and vice versa. In conclusion, we provided evidence-based support for the establishment of oligotrophic reed beds of anthropogenic origin as management tools providing sustainable habitats for specialized reed gall-associated aculeate hymenopteran inquilines, including the threatened species.

Phylogenomics and biogeography of sawflies and woodwasps (Hymenoptera, Symphyta).

Phylogenomic approaches have recently helped elucidate various insect relationships, but large-scale comprehensive analyses on relationships within sawflies and woodwasps are still lacking. Here, we infer the relationships and long-term biogeographic history of these hymenopteran groups using a large dataset of 354 UCE loci collected from 385 species that represent all major lineages. Early Hymenoptera started diversifying during the Early Triassic âˆ¼249 Ma and spread all over the ancient supercontinent Pangaea. We recovered Xyeloidea as a monophyletic sister group to other Hymenoptera and Pamphilioidea as sister to Unicalcarida. Within the diverse family Tenthredinidae, our taxonomically and geographically expanded taxon sampling highlights the non-monophyly of several traditionally defined subfamilies. In addition, the recent removal of Athalia and related genera from the Tenthredinidae into the separate family Athaliidae is supported. The deep historical biogeography of the group is characterised by independent dispersals and re-colonisations between the northern (Laurasia) and southern (Gondwana) palaeocontinents. The breakup of these landmasses led to ancient vicariance in several Gondwanan lineages, while interchange across the Northern Hemisphere has continued until the Recent. The little-studied African sawfly fauna is likewise a diverse mixture of groups with varying routes of colonization. Our results reveal interesting parallels in the evolution and biogeography of early hymenopterans and other ancient insect groups.

Clinical features, severity, and immunological changes during venom immunotherapy in children and adults.

Background: Hymenoptera venom allergy (HVA) is among the most common causes of severe allergic reactions worldwide. Objective: To investigate clinical features and factors that affect the severity of HVA and to determine the alterations in immunologic biomarkers after venom immunotherapy (VIT). Methods: Seventy-six adults and 36 children were prospectively investigated. We analyzed specific immunoglobulin E (sIgE) and sIgG4 levels of venom extracts and components (rApi m1, rApi m10, rVes v1, rVes v5, rPol d5) before and after the first year of VIT. Results: Although cardiovascular symptoms were more common in adults (p < 0.001), the skin was the most affected organ in children (p = 0.009). Serum basal tryptase (sBT) levels were higher in the adults than the children (p < 0.001). The absence of urticaria (odds ratio [OR] 4.208 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.395-12.688]; p = 0.011) and sBT ≥ 5.2 ng/mL (OR 11.941 [95% CI, 5.220-39.733]; p < 0.001) were found as the risk factors for grade IV reactions. During VIT, changes in sIgE levels were variable. In the Apis VIT group, we observed remarkable increases in sIgG4 levels in Apis extract and rApi m1 but not in Api m10. Vespula extract, rVes v1, and rVes v5 sIgG4 levels were significantly increased in Vespula VIT group, we also detected significant increases in the Polistes extract and rPol d5 sIgG4 levels, which were not observed in the Apis VIT group. In the patients who received both Apis and Vespula VIT, increases in sIgG4 levels were observed for both venoms. Conclusion: Adults and children can have different clinical patterns. After 1 year, VIT induced a strong IgG4 response. Although Apis immunotherapy (IT) induced Apis sIgG4, excluding Api m10, Vespula IT induced both Vespula and Polistes sIgG4.

Efficacy and safety of hymenoptera venom immunotherapy.

Background: Being stung by Hymenoptera species can cause life-threatening anaphylaxis. Although venom immunotherapy (VIT) seems to be the most effective treatment, its long-term efficacy, and risk factors for adverse events remain unclear. Objective: The objective was to investigate the long-term efficacy of VIT and evaluate adverse events and risk factors related to this. Method: Patients who received VIT in a tertiary-care adult allergy clinic between January 2005 and July 2022 were included. Patients' data were compared with those of individuals who had been diagnosed with bee and/or wasp venom allergy during the same period but had not received VIT and experienced field re-stings. Results: The study included 105 patients with venom allergy, of whom 68 received VIT and 37 did not receive VIT. Twenty-three patients (34%) completed 5 years of VIT, and the overall mean ± standard deviation VIT duration was 46.9 ± 20.9 months. Re-stings occurred in 5 of 23 patients who completed 5 years of VIT, and none of them developed a systemic reaction. Eighteen patients (40%) experienced re-stings after prematurely discontinuing VIT, of whom eight (44%) developed a systemic reaction. In the control group of patients who did not receive VIT, 26 patients (70.3%) experienced re-stings, and all had systemic reactions (100%), with no change in their median Mueller scores. There was a significant difference in the median Mueller score change between the patients who received VIT and the controls who did not (p = 0.016). A total of 13 patients (19%) experienced adverse events while receiving VIT, which were systemic reactions in nine honeybee VIT. The use of ß-blockers was determined as the most important risk factor (odds ratio 15.9 [95% confidence interval, 1.2-208.8]; p = 0.035). Conclusion: It was confirmed that VIT was effective in both reducing the incidence and the severity of re-sting reactions. These effects were more pronounced in the patients who completed 5 years of VIT.

Insights from the past: the work of Hans von Alten on the evolution of brain structure, ecological adaptation, and cognition in hymenopteran species.

In his treatise on arthropod brains, Hans von Alten (1910) focuses on a specific functional group of insects-the flying Hymenoptera-which exhibit a spectrum of lifestyles ranging from solitary to social. His work presents a distinctive comparative neuro-anatomical approach rooted in an eco-evolutionary and eco-behavioral background. We regard his publication as an exceptionally valuable source of information and seek to inspire the research community dedicated to the study of the insect brain to explore its insights further, even after more than 110 years. We have translated and annotated his work, expecting it to engage researchers not just with its remarkable drawings but also with its substantive content and exemplary research strategy. The present text is designed to complement von Alten's publication, situating it within the temporal context of nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century studies, and to draw connections to contemporary perspectives, especially concerning a central brain structure: the mushroom body.

Pollination biology of Impatiens capensis Meerb. in non-native range.

Pollination biology in the widespread species Impatiens capensis Meerb. has only been studied in America, specifically in zones of the U.S.A. and Canada. In this study, we investigated the pollination biology of I. capensis using an integrative identification approach using morphological and molecular tools in four populations of Northwest Poland. We also determined and compared the functional characteristics of the pollinators of the introduced species from the study sites and the native ones reported, for the latter collecting information from bibliographic sources. Visitors were identified using standard morphological keys, including identifying and classifying insect mouthparts. Molecular identification was carried out using mitochondrial DNA's cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI). We morphologically identified 20 species of visitors constituted by 17 pollinators and three nectar robbers. DNA barcoding of 59 individuals proved the identification of 18 species (also 18 BINs). The frequency of pollinator species was primarily made up of representatives of both Hymenoptera (75%) and Diptera (21%). The morphological traits, such as the chewing and sucking mouthparts, small and big body height, and robber and pollinator behavior explained mainly the native and introduced visitors' arrangements that allow pollination success. However, to understand the process comprehensively, further investigation of other causalities in pollination success and understanding the diversity of pollinators in outer native ranges are necessary.

Hymenoptera venom immunotherapy: Safety and efficacy of an accelerated induction regimen with depot aluminum adsorbed extracts.

Introduction: Hymenoptera venom immunotherapy (VIT) is the only therapy that protects patients with Hymenoptera venom allergy by preventing systemic reactions after a new sting. Various extracts for VIT are available and used. VIT administration consists of an induction phase and a maintenance phase. Depot preparations of Hymenoptera VIT extracts are typically used for cluster and conventional protocols, and the maintenance phase. Many patients with Hymenoptera allergy need to achieve tolerance quickly because of the high risk of re-sting and possible anaphylaxis. Objective: Our study aimed to show the safety and efficacy of an accelerated regimen with depot preparations on aluminum hydroxide by using relatively high starting doses in a heterogeneous group of patients. Methods: The research focused on a group of patients with a history of severe systemic reactions to Hymenoptera stings, with the necessity of swift immunization due to high occupational risks. Aluminum hydroxide depot extracts either of Vepula species or Apis mellifera extracts were used. Results: The induction protocol was started with the highest concentration of depot venom extract of 100,000 standard quality unit and was well tolerated by 19 of 20 patients. Onne patient presented with a mild systemic reaction during the accelerated induction schedule, which was promptly treated with intravenous steroids and intramuscular H1 antihistamine; when switched to a conventional induction protocol, he had a similar reaction but finally reached maintenance with an H1-antagonist premedication. Conclusion: If validated, the accelerated induction protocol by using depot aluminum adsorbed extracts with the highest concentration of venom from the beginning could offer a streamlined and accessible treatment modality for patients diagnosed with anaphylaxis from bee and wasp venoms in need of rapid desensitization.

First record of Apanteles hemara (N.) on Leucinodes orbonalis Guenée and biodiversity of Hymenoptera parasitoids on Brinjal.

The brinjal fruit and shoot borer (BFSB), Leucinodes orbonalis Guenée (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), is a very detrimental pest that causes significant economic losses to brinjal crop worldwide. Infested brinjal fruits were collected from vegetable fields located at the ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute (ICAR-IARI), New Delhi, India, during two consecutive seasons (2021-2022). The larvae of the pest were brought to the laboratory and reared under controlled conditions of 25 ± 0.5 °C and 70 ± 5% relative humidity, for the emergence of parasitoids. In addition, the survey of Hymenoptera parasitoids in brinjal was conducted utilizing a sweep net and yellow pan trap over the course of two seasons. The results reveal that five parasitoid species were emerged from L. orbonalis viz., Apanteles hemara Nixon, 1965, Bracon greeni Ashmead 1896 (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), Goryphus nursei (Cameron, 1907), Trathala flavoorbitalis (Cameron, 1907) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) and Spalangia gemina Boucek 1963 (Hymenoptera: Spalangiidae). Out of these, A. hemara and S. gemina were documented as new occurrences in Delhi. Additionally, A. hemara was recorded for the first time as a parasite on L. orbonalis. Trathala flavoorbitalis was observed during both seasons and exhibited higher parasitism reaching 15.55% and 18.46% in July and August 2022, respectively. However, the average parasitism (%) recorded by A. hemara, B. greeni, G. nursei, T. flavoorbitalis and S. gemina was 3.10%, 1.76%, 1.10%, 9.28% and 1.20% respectively. Furthermore, the findings showed a significant (p ≤ 0.01) strongly positive correlation between fruit infestation (%) by L. orbonalis and parasitism (%). The survey indicates the presence of a broad group (19 families and 60 species) of Hymenoptera parasitoids in the brinjal crop ecosystem in Delhi which could be valuable in biological control. In light of these results, this study revealed that A. hemara and other parasitoids identified in this study alongside T. flavoorbitalis would be ideal biocontrol agents within the integrated pest management (IPM) program of BFSB in Delhi.

Molecular identification of Hymenopteran insects collected by using Malaise traps from Hazarganji Chiltan National Park Quetta, Pakistan.

The order Hymenoptera holds great significance for humans, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions, due to its role as a pollinator of wild and cultivated flowering plants, parasites of destructive insects and honey producers. Despite this importance, limited attention has been given to the genetic diversity and molecular identification of Hymenopteran insects in most protected areas. This study provides insights into the first DNA barcode of Hymenopteran insects collected from Hazarganji Chiltan National Park (HCNP) and contributes to the global reference library of DNA barcodes. A total of 784 insect specimens were collected using Malaise traps, out of which 538 (68.62%) specimens were morphologically identified as Hymenopteran insects. The highest abundance of species of Hymenoptera (133/538, 24.72%) was observed during August and least in November (16/538, 2.97%). Genomic DNA extraction was performed individually from 90/538 (16.73%) morphologically identified specimens using the standard phenol-chloroform method, which were subjected separately to the PCR for their molecular confirmation via the amplification of cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) gene. The BLAST analyses of obtained sequences showed 91.64% to 100% identities with related sequences and clustered phylogenetically with their corresponding sequences that were reported from Australia, Bulgaria, Canada, Finland, Germany, India, Israel, and Pakistan. Additionally, total of 13 barcode index numbers (BINs) were assigned by Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD), out of which 12 were un-unique and one was unique (BOLD: AEU1239) which was assigned for Anthidium punctatum. This indicates the potential geographical variation of Hymenopteran population in HCNP. Further comprehensive studies are needed to molecularly confirm the existing insect species in HCNP and evaluate their impacts on the environment, both as beneficial (for example, pollination, honey producers and natural enemies) and detrimental (for example, venomous stings, crop damage, and pathogens transmission).

Measuring factors affecting honey bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) attraction to soybeans using bioacoustics monitoring.

Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) is an important agricultural crop around the world, and previous studies suggest that honey bees (Apis mellifera Linnaeus) can be a component for optimizing soybean production through pollination. Determining when bees are present in soybean fields is critical for assessing pollination activity and identifying periods when bees are absent so that bee-toxic pesticides may be applied. There are currently several methods for detecting pollinator activity, but these existing methods have substantial limitations, including the bias of pan trappings against large bees and the limited duration of observation possible using manual techniques. This study aimed to develop a new method for detecting honey bees in soybean fields using bioacoustics monitoring. Microphones were placed in soybean fields to record the audible wingbeats of foraging bees. Foraging activity was identified using the wingbeat frequency of honey bees (234 ±â€…14 Hz) through a combination of algorithmic and manual approaches. A total of 243 honey bees were detected over 10 days of recording in 4 soybean fields. Bee activity was significantly greater in blooming fields than in non-blooming fields. Temperature had no significant effect on bee activity, but bee activity differed significantly between soybean varieties, suggesting that soybean attractiveness to honey bees is heavily dependent on varietal characteristics. Refinement of bioacoustics methods, particularly through the incorporation of machine learning, could provide a practical tool for measuring the activity of honey bees and other flying insects in soybeans as well as other crops and ecosystems.

Semi-arid's Unsung Heroes: Hymenoptera and the Vital Ecosystem Services Enabled by Encholirium spectabile, a Rupicolous Bromeliad in the Brazilian Semi-arid Region.

The concept of Ecosystem Services (ES) recognizes the importance of natural ecosystems in supporting human well-being. Hymenoptera, a diverse group of insects including ants, bees, and wasps, play crucial roles in providing ESs. Despite their significance, the provision of ESs by Hymenoptera is often undervalued, leading to ecosystem degradation and loss of important services. This study focuses on the association between Hymenoptera and a rupicolous bromeliad species (Encholirium spectabile) and explores the ESs promoted directly and indirectly by these insects. The study area is located in the Caatinga region of Brazil, characterized by irregular rainfall and a dry season. The results show that Hymenoptera, particularly bees, ants, and wasps, provide a range of ESs including pollination, honey production, pest control, cultural symbolism, and educational value. These services are vital for plant reproduction, food production, and ecosystem functioning in both seasons; there are no differences in species richness between seasons, but rather in species composition. Understanding the importance of Hymenoptera for ESs is crucial for informing conservation and management practices to ensure the sustainability of natural ecosystems. The study highlights the need for conservation actions to protect the intricate ecological relationships between Hymenoptera and bromeliads, which indirectly support ESs by providing habitat and resources, especially during droughts when resources are scarce in the region. By recognizing the importance of bromeliads in supporting Hymenopteran communities, conservation efforts can focus on preserving these critical ecological interactions and maintaining ES provision.

The multispecies stinkbug iflavirus Halyomorpha halys virus detected in the multispecies stinkbug egg parasitoid microwasp, Telenomus podisi (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae).

Wasps are important parasitoids of stinkbugs and frequently exposed to various types of microorganisms through environmental contact and fecal-oral transmission route. Many parasitize stinkbug eggs and are commercially used in the field to control insect population. The parasitoid T. podisi is known for its high parasitism capacity and ability to target multiple species of stinkbugs. In this study we asked whether T. podisi exposed to eggs infected by a multispecies asymptomatic stinkbug virus, the Halyomorpha halys virus (HhV) would get infected. HhV is a geographically distributed multispecies iflavirus previously found to infect four stinkbug hosts, including three Brazilian species, Chinavia ubica, Euschistus heros and Diceraeus melacanthus, and T. posidi can parasitize all of them. As results, RT-PCR screening revealed positive samples for the HhV genome in two out of four tested pools of T. podisi, whereas the antigenome, indicative of replicative activity, was not detected. The wasps were raised in E. heros eggs that presented both the genome and the antigenome forms of the HhV genome. Subsequent RNA-deep sequencing of HhV positive T. podisi RNA pools yielded a complete genome of HhV with high coverage. Phylogenetic analysis positioned the isolate HhV-Tp (isolate Telenomus podisi) alongside with the stinkbug HhV. Analysis of transcriptomes from several hymenopteran species revealed HhV-Tp reads in four species. However, the transmission mechanism and the ecological significance of HhV remain elusive, warranting further studies to illuminate both the transmission process and its capacity for environmental propagation using T. podisi as a potential vector.

Range-wide genetic analysis of an endangered bumble bee (Bombus affinis, Hymenoptera: Apidae) reveals population structure, isolation by distance, and low colony abundance.

Declines in bumble bee species range and abundances are documented across multiple continents and have prompted the need for research to aid species recovery and conservation. The rusty patched bumble bee (Bombus affinis) is the first federally listed bumble bee species in North America. We conducted a range-wide population genetics study of B. affinis from across all extant conservation units to inform conservation efforts. To understand the species' vulnerability and help establish recovery targets, we examined population structure, patterns of genetic diversity, and population differentiation. Additionally, we conducted a site-level analysis of colony abundance to inform prioritizing areas for conservation, translocation, and other recovery actions. We find substantial evidence of population structuring along an east-to-west gradient. Putative populations show evidence of isolation by distance, high inbreeding coefficients, and a range-wide male diploidy rate of ~15%. Our results suggest the Appalachians represent a genetically distinct cluster with high levels of private alleles and substantial differentiation from the rest of the extant range. Site-level analyses suggest low colony abundance estimates for B. affinis compared to similar datasets of stable, co-occurring species. These results lend genetic support to trends from observational studies, suggesting that B. affinis has undergone a recent decline and exhibit substantial spatial structure. The low colony abundances observed here suggest caution in overinterpreting the stability of populations even where B. affinis is reliably detected interannually. These results help delineate informed management units, provide context for the potential risks of translocation programs, and help set clear recovery targets for this and other threatened bumble bee species.

Optimizing the releasing strategy used for the biological control of the sugarcane borer Diatraea saccharalis by Trichogramma galloi with computer modeling and simulation.

One of the challenges in augmentative biological control programs is the definition of releasing strategy for natural enemies, especially when macro-organisms are involved. Important information about the density of insects to be released and frequency of releases usually requires a great number of experiments, which implies time and space that are not always readily available. In order to provide science-based responses for these questions, computational models offer an in silico option to simulate different biocontrol agent releasing scenarios. This allows decision-makers to focus their efforts to more feasible options. The major insect pest in sugarcane crops is the sugarcane borer Diatraea saccharalis, which can be managed using the egg parasitoid Trichogramma galloi. The current strategy consists in releasing 50,000 insects per hectare for each release, in three weekly releases. Here, we present a simulation model to check whether this releasing strategy is optimal against the sugarcane borer. A sensitive analysis revealed that the population of the pest is more affected by the number of releases rather than by the density of parasitoids released. Only the number of releases demonstrated an ability to drive the population curve of the pest towards a negative growth. For example, releasing a total of 600,000 insects per hectare in three releases led to a lower pest control efficacy that releasing only 250,000 insects per hectare in five releases. A higher number of releases covers a wider range of time, increasing the likelihood of releasing parasitoids at the correct time given that the egg stage is short. Based on these results, it is suggested that, if modifications to the releasing strategy are desired, increasing the number of releases from 3 to 5 at weekly intervals is most likely preferable.

Odorant Receptors Expressing and Antennal Lobes Architecture Are Linked to Caste Dimorphism in Asian Honeybee, Apis cerana (Hymenoptera: Apidae).

Insects heavily rely on the olfactory system for food, mating, and predator evasion. However, the caste-related olfactory differences in Apis cerana, a eusocial insect, remain unclear. To explore the peripheral and primary center of the olfactory system link to the caste dimorphism in A. cerana, transcriptome and immunohistochemistry studies on the odorant receptors (ORs) and architecture of antennal lobes (ALs) were performed on different castes. Through transcriptomesis, we found more olfactory receptor genes in queens and workers than in drones, which were further validated by RT-qPCR, indicating caste dimorphism. Meanwhile, ALs structure, including volume, surface area, and the number of glomeruli, demonstrated a close association with caste dimorphism. Particularly, drones had more macroglomeruli possibly for pheromone recognition. Interestingly, we found that the number of ORs and glomeruli ratio was nearly 1:1. Also, the ORs expression distribution pattern was very similar to the distribution of glomeruli volume. Our results suggest the existence of concurrent plasticity in both the peripheral olfactory system and ALs among different castes of A. cerana, highlighting the role of the olfactory system in labor division in insects.

Morphological phylogeny and revision of Sycophila and Ficomila (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea, Eurytomidae) associated with Afrotropical fig trees (Moraceae, Ficus).

Eurytomidae (Chalcidoidea) species associated with fig trees (Ficus) are still poorly documented. A phylogenetic analysis of 63 morphological characters was conducted to revise Afrotropical species of Sycophila Walker and Ficomila Bouek associated with fig trees. Based on our results, which also included Palaearctic species of Sycophila, three subgenera of Sycophila are proposed: Sycophila s. str., Tineomyza Rondani stat. rev. and a new subgenus, Ficorytoma subgen. n. Lotfalizadeh & Rasplus. Ficomila is maintained as a valid genus. Thirty-six species are also newly described by Lotfalizadeh & Rasplus, namely Ficomila artocarpoides sp. n., F. carolae sp. n., F. bouceki sp. n., F. comptoni sp. n., F. flava sp. n., F. gabonensis sp. n., F. gibba sp. n., F. guinensis sp. n., F. sinai sp. n., F. tanzanica sp. n., F. vannoorti sp. n., Sycophila (Tineomyza) beninensis sp. n., S. (T.) busseicola sp. n., S. (T.) glumosae sp. n., S. (T.) luteacola sp. n., S. (T.) maldesi sp. n., S. (T.) minuta sp. n., S. (T.) platygastra sp. n., S. (T.) risbeci sp. n., S. (T.) wiebesi sp. n., S. (T.) zebrogastra sp. n., S. (Ficorytoma) delvarei sp. n., S. (F.) persicae sp. n., S. (Sycophila) annae sp. n., S. (S.) bidentata sp. n., S. (S.) longiflagellata sp. n., S. (S.) chirindensis sp. n., S. (S.) ficophila sp. n., S. (S.) fusca sp. n., S. (S.) lasallei sp. n., S. (S.) macrospermae sp. n., S. (S.) meridionalis sp. n., S. (S.) nigra sp. n., S. (S.) nigriterga sp. n., S. (S.) suricola sp. n., S. (S.) zebra sp. n.. Seven described species of Sycophila are reclassified in the subgenus Tineomyza: Sycophila (Tineomyza) flaviclava Bouek, 1981; S. (T.) modesta Bouek, 1981; S. (T.) naso Bouek, 1981; S. (T.) punctum Bouek, 1981; S. (T.) ruandensis Risbec, 1957; S. (T.) sessilis Bouek, 1981 and S. (T.) setulosa Zerova, 2009. After this revision, Ficomila and Sycophila include 46 species associated with Afrotropical Ficus. Detailed morphological descriptions and illustrations as well as identification keys are provided for the subgenera, species-groups and species of Ficomila and Sycophila associated with Afrotropical fig trees; their host fig association and relative lack of host-specificity are also discussed.