Specific Bacterial Cell Wall Components Influence the Stability of Coxsackievirus B3.

Enteric viruses infect the mammalian gastrointestinal tract and lead to significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Data indicate that enteric viruses can utilize intestinal bacteria to promote viral replication and pathogenesis. However, the precise interactions between enteric viruses and bacteria are unknown. Here, we examined the interaction between bacteria and coxsackievirus B3, an enteric virus from the picornavirus family. We found that bacteria enhance the infectivity of coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) in vitro. Notably, specific bacteria are required, as Gram-negative Salmonella enterica, but not Escherichia coli, enhanced CVB3 infectivity and stability. Investigating the cell wall components of both S. enterica and E. coli revealed that structures in the O-antigen or core of lipopolysaccharide, a major component of the Gram-negative bacterial cell wall, were required for S. enterica to enhance CVB3. To determine if these requirements were necessary for similar enteric viruses, we investigated if S. enterica and E. coli enhanced infectivity of poliovirus, another enteric virus in the picornavirus family. We found that while E. coli did not enhance the infectivity of CVB3, E. coli enhanced poliovirus infectivity. Overall, these data indicate that distinct bacteria enhance CVB3 infectivity and stability, and specific enteric viruses may have differing requirements for their interactions with specific bacterial species. IMPORTANCE Previous data indicate that several enteric viruses utilize bacteria to promote intestinal infection and viral stability. Here, we show that specific bacteria and bacterial cell wall components are required to enhance infectivity and stability of coxsackievirus B3 in vitro. These requirements are likely enteric virus specific, as the bacteria for CVB3 differ from poliovirus, a closely related virus. Therefore, these data indicate that specific bacteria and their cell wall components dictate the interaction with various enteric viruses in distinct mechanisms.

Isolation and Characterization of Shiga Toxin Bacteriophages.

Shiga toxin (Stx) phages can be induced from Stx-producing Escherichia coli strains (STEC) or can be isolated as free virions from different samples. Here we describe methods used for the detection, enumeration, and isolation of Stx bacteriophages. Stx phages are temperate phages located in the genome of STEC. Their induction from the host strain cultures is achieved by different inducing agents, mitomycin C being one of the most commonly used. Detection of infectious Stx phages requires the production of visible plaques in a confluent lawn of the host strain using a double agar layer method. However, as the plaques produced by Stx phages are often barely visible and there is a possibility that non-Stx phages can also be induced from the strain, a hybridization step should be added to recognize and properly enumerate the lysis plaques generated after induction. Molecular methods can also be used to identify and enumerate Stx phages. Real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) is the most accurate method for absolute quantification, although it cannot determine the infectivity of Stx phages. qPCR can also be useful for the detection of free Stx phage virions in different sample types.Stx phages induced from lysogenic bacterial strains can be purified by cesium chloride density gradients; this protocol also helps to specifically discriminate Stx phages from other prophages present in the genome of the host strain by selecting the phages expressing the Stx gene. High titer suspensions of Stx phages obtained after induction of large volumes of bacterial cultures and lysate concentration permits phage characterization by electron microscopy studies and genomic analysis.

EHEC O111:H8 strain and norovirus GII.4 Sydney [P16] causing an outbreak in a daycare center, Brazil, 2019.

BACKGROUND: This study describes the investigation of an outbreak of diarrhea, hemorrhagic colitis (HC), and hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) at a daycare center in southeastern Brazil, involving fourteen children, six staff members, six family members, and one nurse. All bacterial and viral pathogens detected were genetically characterized. RESULTS: Two isolates of a strain of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) serotype O111:H8 were recovered, one implicated in a case of HUS and the other in a case of uncomplicated diarrhea. These isolates had a clonal relationship of 94% and carried the stx2a and eae virulence genes and the OI-122 pathogenicity island. The EHEC strain was determined to be a single-locus variant of sequence type (ST) 327. EHEC isolates were resistant to ofloxacin, doxycycline, tetracycline, ampicillin, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and intermediately resistant to levofloxacin and ciprofloxacin. Rotavirus was not detected in any samples, and norovirus was detected in 46.7% (14/30) of the stool samples, three of which were from asymptomatic staff members. The noroviruses were classified as the recombinant GII.4 Sydney [P16] by gene sequencing. CONCLUSION: In this outbreak, it was possible to identify an uncommon stx2a + EHEC O111:H8 strain, and the most recent pandemic norovirus strain GII.4 Sydney [P16]. Our findings reinforce the need for surveillance and diagnosis of multiple enteric pathogens by public health authorities, especially during outbreaks.

O antigen restricts lysogenization of non-O157 Escherichia coli strains by Stx-converting bacteriophage phi24B.

Acquisition of new prophages that are able to increase the bacterial fitness by the lysogenic conversion is believed to be an important strategy of bacterial adaptation to the changing environment. However, in contrast to the factors determining the range of bacteriophage lytic activity, little is known about the factors that define the lysogenization host range. Bacteriophage phi24B is the paradigmal model of Stx-converting phages, encoding the toxins of the Shiga-toxigenic E. coli (STEC). This virus has been shown to lysogenize a wide range of E. coli strains that is much broader than the range of the strains supporting its lytic growth. Therefore, phages produced by the STEC population colonizing the small or large intestine are potentially able to lysogenize symbiotic E. coli in the hindgut, and these secondary lysogens may contribute to the overall patient toxic load and to lead to the emergence of new pathogenic STEC strains. We demonstrate, however, that O antigen effectively limit the lysogenization of the wild E. coli strains by phi24B phage. The lysogens are formed from the spontaneous rough mutants and therefore have increased sensitivity to other bacteriophages and to the bactericidal activity of the serum if compared to their respective parental strains.

Bacteriophage activity against and characterisation of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from colibacillosis cases in Uganda.

Avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) cause colibacillosis leading to significant economic losses in the poultry industry. This laboratory-based study aimed at establishing stocks of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli lytic bacteriophages, for future development of cocktail products for colibacillosis management. The study determined the antibiotic susceptibility; phylogenetic categories, occurrence of selected serotypes and virulence genes among Escherichia coli stock isolates from chicken colibacillosis cases; and evaluated bacteriophage activity against the bacteria. Escherichia coli characterization was done through phenotypic and multiplex PCR methods. Bacteriophage isolation and preliminary characterization was achieved using the spot assay and overlay plating techniques. Fifty-six (56) isolates were phenotypically confirmed as E. coli and all exhibited resistance to at least one antimicrobial agent; while multi-drug resistance (at least three drugs) was encountered in 50 (89.3%) isolates. The APEC isolates mainly belonged to phylogroups A and D, representing 44.6% and 39.3%, respectively; whereas serotypes O1, O2 and O78 were not detected. Of the 56 isolates, 69.6% harbored at least one virulence gene, while 50% had at least four virulence genes; hence confirmed as APEC. Virulence genes, ompT and iutA were the most frequent in 33 (58.9%) and 32 (57.1%) isolates respectively; while iroN least occurred in 23 (41.1%) isolates. Seven lytic bacteriophages were isolated and their host range, at 1×108 PFU/ml, varied from 1.8% to 17.9% of the 56 APEC isolates, while the combined lytic spectrum was 25%. Phage stability was negatively affected by increasing temperatures with both UPEC04 and UPEC10 phages being undetectable at 70°C; whereas activity was detected between pH 2 and 12. The high occurrence of APEC isolates resistant against the commonly used antibiotics supports the need for alternative strategies of bacterial infections control in poultry. The low host range exhibited by the phages necessitates search for more candidates before in-depth phage characterization and application.

Genetic and Phenotypic Factors Associated with Persistent Shedding of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli by Beef Cattle.

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) is a leading cause of foodborne infections. Cattle are an important STEC reservoir, although little is known about specific pathogen traits that impact persistence in the farm environment. Hence, we sought to evaluate STEC isolates recovered from beef cattle in a single herd in Michigan. To do this, we collected fecal grabs from 26 cattle and resampled 13 of these animals at 3 additional visits over a 3-month period. In all, 66 STEC isolates were recovered for genomics and biofilm quantification using crystal violet assays. The STEC population was diverse, representing seven serotypes, including O157:H7, O26:H11, and O103:H2, which are commonly associated with human infections. Although a core genome analysis of 2,933 genes grouped isolates into clusters based on serogroups, some isolates within each cluster had variable biofilm levels and virulence gene profiles. Most (77.8%; n = 49) isolates harbored stx2a, while 38 (57.5%) isolates formed strong biofilms. Isolates belonging to the predominant serogroup O6 (n = 36; 54.5%) were more likely to form strong biofilms, persistently colonize multiple cattle, and be acquired over time. A high-quality single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis of 33 O6 isolates detected between 0 and 13 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) differences between strains, indicating that highly similar strain types were persisting in this herd. Similar findings were observed for other persistent serogroups, although key genes were found to differ among strong and weak biofilm producers. Together, these data highlight the diversity and persistent nature of some STEC types in this important food animal reservoir.IMPORTANCE Food animal reservoirs contribute to Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) evolution via the acquisition of horizontally acquired elements like Shiga toxin bacteriophages that enhance pathogenicity. In cattle, persistent fecal shedding of STEC contributes to contamination of beef and dairy products and to crops being exposed to contaminated water systems. Hence, identifying factors important for STEC persistence is critical. This longitudinal study enhances our understanding of the genetic diversity of STEC types circulating in a cattle herd and identifies genotypic and phenotypic traits associated with persistence. Key findings demonstrate that multiple STEC types readily persist in and are transmitted across cattle in a shared environment. These dynamics also enhance the persistence of virulence genes that can be transferred between bacterial hosts, resulting in the emergence of novel STEC strain types. Understanding how pathogens persist and diversify in reservoirs is important for guiding new preharvest prevention strategies aimed at reducing foodborne transmission to humans.

Abundant human anti-Galα3Gal antibodies display broad pathogen reactivity.

Antibodies of the IgG class to terminal Galα3Gal (IgG anti-αGal) is abundant in human plasma and are reported to bind most sepsis-causing Gram-negative bacteria. However, these seminal findings, made more than two decades ago, have not been reexamined. Our aim was to assess IgG anti-αGal´s pathogen reactivity. We affinity purified IgG anti-αGal from a therapeutic grade normal human IgG pool applying two rounds of positive selection with Galα3Gal-coupled beads and included removal of column matrix reactive antibodies. The purified antibodies were rigorously characterized in terms of specificity and purity in various solid-phase immunoassays. We used flow cytometry to study reactivity against 100 consecutive clinical isolates diagnosed as cause of sepsis in humans. We found that the purified IgG anti-αGal displays high specificity for Galα3Gal. Also, IgG anti-αGal at 5 mg/L bound 56 out of 100 pathogens with predilection for Gram-positive bacteria binding 39 out of 52 strains. We confirm that although IgG anti-αGal comprise a small fraction of the human antibody pool (~0.1%), these antibodies targets an impressively large part of pathogens causing invasive disease.

Molecular characterisation of multi-drug resistant Escherichia coli of bovine origin.

Antimicrobial resistance reported in bacteria of animal origin is considered a major challenge to veterinary public health. In this study, the genotypic and phenotypic characterisation of twelve Escherichia coli isolates of bovine origin is reported. Twelve bacterial isolates of animal origin were selected from a previous study based on their multidrug resistant (MDR) profile. Efflux pump activity was measured using ethidium bromide (EtBr) and the biofilm forming ability of the individual strains was assessed using a number of phenotypic assays. All isolates were resistant to tetracyclines and a number of isolates expressed resistance to fluoroquinolones which was also confirmed in silico by the presence of these resistance markers. Amino acid substitutions in the quinolone resistance-determining regions were identified in all isolates and the presence of several siderophores were also noted. Whole genomesequence (WGS) data showed different STs that were not associated with epidemic STs or virulent clonal complexes. Seven isolates formed biofilms in minimal media with some isolates showing better adaptation at 25 °C while others at 37 °C. The capacity to efflux EtBr was found to be high in 4 isolates and impaired in 4 others. The pathogenicity of three selected isolates was assessed in zebrafish embryo infection models, revealing isolates CFS0355 and CFS0356 as highly pathogenic. These results highlight the application of NGS technologies combined with phenotypic assays in providing a better understanding of E. coli of bovine origin and their adaptation to this niche environment.

Oral Fosfomycin Efficacy with Variable Urinary Exposures following Single and Multiple Doses against Enterobacterales: the Importance of Heteroresistance for Growth Outcome.

Oral fosfomycin trometamol is licensed as a single oral dose for the treatment of uncomplicated urinary tract infections, with activity against multidrug-resistant uropathogens. The impact of interindividual variability in urinary concentrations on antimicrobial efficacy, and any benefit of giving multiple doses, is uncertain. We therefore performed pharmacodynamic profiling of oral fosfomycin, using a dynamic bladder infection in vitro model, to assess high and low urinary exposures following a single oral dose and three repeat doses given every 72 h, 48 h, and 24 h against 16 clinical isolates with various MICs of fosfomycin (8 Escherichia coli, 4 Enterobacter cloacae, and 4 Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates). Baseline fosfomycin high-level-resistant (HLR) subpopulations were detected prior to drug exposure in half of the isolates (2 E. coli, 2 E. cloacae, and 4 K. pneumoniae isolates; proportion, 1 × 10-5 to 5 × 10-4% of the total population). Fosfomycin exposures were accurately reproduced compared to mathematical modeling (linear regression slope, 1.1; R2, 0.99), with a bias of 3.8% ± 5.7%. All 5/5 isolates with MICs of ≤1 µg/ml had no HLR and were killed, whereas 8/11 isolates with higher MICs regrew regardless of exposure to high or low urinary concentrations. A disk diffusion zone of <24 mm was a better predictor for baseline HLR and regrowth. Administering 3 doses with average exposures provided very limited additional kill. These results suggest that baseline heteroresistance is important for treatment response, while increased drug exposure and administering multiple doses may not be better than standard single-dose fosfomycin therapy.

Role of orf73 in the development of lambdoid bacteriophages during infection of the Escherichia coli host.

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) is a group of pathogenic strains responsible for human infections that result in bloody diarrhea and hemorrhagic colitis, often with severe complications. The main virulence factors of STEC are Shiga toxins encoded by stx genes located in genomes of Shiga toxin-converting bacteriophages (Stx phages). These bacterial viruses are clustered in the lambdoid bacteriophages family represented by phage λ. Here, we report that expression of orf73 from the exo-xis region of the phage genome promotes the lysogenic pathway of development of λ and Φ24B phages. We demonstrated that the mutant phages with deletions of orf73 revealed higher burst size during the lytic cycle. Moreover, survival rates of E. coli infected with mutant bacteriophages were lower relative to wild-type viruses. Additionally, orf73 deletion negatively influenced the lysogenization process of E. coli host cells. We conclude that orf73 plays an important biological role in the development of lambdoid viruses, and probably it is involved in the network of molecular mechanism of the lysis-vs.-lysogenization decision.

Sex pilus specific bacteriophage to drive bacterial population towards antibiotic sensitivity.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is now a major global problem largely resulting from the overuse of antibiotics in humans and livestock. In some AMR bacteria, resistance is encoded by conjugative plasmids expressing sex-pili that can readily spread resistance through bacterial populations. The aim of this study was to use sex pilus-specific (SPS) phage to reduce the carriage of AMR plasmids. Here, we demonstrate that SPS phage can kill AMR Escherichia coli and select for AMR plasmid loss in vitro. For the first time, we also demonstrate that SPS phage can both prevent the spread of AMR Salmonella Enteritidis infection in chickens and shift the bacterial population towards antibiotic sensitivity.

Use of a Chicken Embryo Lethality Assay to Assess the Efficacy of Phage Therapy.

To combat infectious diseases induced by antibiotic-resistant bacteria in human and animals, phage therapy has regained attention by the scientific community. Before phages can be widely accepted as therapeutics in the same way as antibiotics, convincing detailed applied experimental evidence must be available. The embryonated chicken egg model has been used to study the virulence of many pathogens. We describe here a procedure to test the efficacy of phage therapy to treat colibacillosis using a chicken embryo lethality assay, this being potentially applied to others bacterial infection.

Molecular and Phenotypic Study of Carbapenem Resistant E. coli.

BACKGROUND: Carbapenem resistance is an emerging problem. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of carbapenem resistance and ESBLs among clinical isolates of E. coli by phenotypic methods and to study the molecular bases of the resistance by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). METHODS: The study was carried on 153 non repetitive E. coli strains collected from different clinical samples from Baghdad hospitals. The strains were isolated according to standard microbiological procedures and identified by Gram stain and biochemical reactions. E. coli strains were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility tests by the disc diffusion method, carbapenem screening, ESBL screening tests, and molecular studies for genes responsible for such resistance. RESULTS: The study was carried out on 153 non repetitive E. coli. Detection of ESBLs by the double disc method reveals that 63 isolates (41.2%) of isolated E. coli had ESBL activity. Carbapenem resistance among E. coli reveals that 30 isolates (19.6%) had both metallo-ß-lactamase and carbapenemase activity as detected by double disc synergy test and boronic acid disc. Among 63 isolates of E. coli with positive double disc tests for ESBL resistance, the most frequent gene detected by PCR was blaTEM (52.4%), followed by blaSHV (33.3%) and blaCTX-M (14.3%). Among 30 E. coli strains with metallo-ß-lactamase activity and carbapenemase activity, the most frequent genes were IMP, VIM (30% for each), followed by NDM (20%), GIM, SIM, SPM, and KPC (10% for each). Isolated E. coli with carbapenem resistance represented 47.6% of E. coli with ESBL activity. CONCLUSIONS: The present study highlights the incidence of carbapenemase among clinical isolates of E. coli combined with extended ß-lactamases activity. Phenotypic screening methods were valuable for detection of different types of resistance. The common genes responsible for carbapenem resistance were IMP, VIM, and NDM. Further studies are recommended with more included E. coli isolates.

Genetic Diversity of Norovirus Infections, Coinfections, and Undernutrition in Children From Brazilian Semiarid Region.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Norovirus (NoV) infections are known to have high-morbidity and mortality rates and are a major health problem globally. The impact of NoV on child development is, however, poorly understood. We evaluated the distribution of NoV genotypes in children from a low-income Brazilian semiarid region, in relation with their clinical symptoms, nutritional status, and co-pathogens. METHODS: The test population included children aged 2 to 36 months from 6 cities of the Brazilian semiarid region. Fecal samples were collected from each child, along with the information regarding their socioeconomic/clinical conditions using a standardized questionnaire. Detection and quantification of NoV were performed by reverse-transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction, followed by molecular and phylogenetic analyses. RESULTS: The NoV detection rate was 45.2%. Presence of NoV was associated with lower z scores for weight-for-age (P = 0.03), weight-for-height (P = 0.03), and body mass index-for-age (P = 0.03). NoV infection was associated with more frequent respiratory illnesses (P < 0.01). GII.P7 (polymerase) and GII.3 (capsid) were the most frequent NoV genotypes. Analysis of the open reading frame (ORF)1-2 junction identified recombinant NoV strains in 80% of the sequenced samples. Enteroaggregative Escherichia coli coinfection was the major predictor for diarrhea in NoV-positive samples (P < 0.02). Moreover, Shigella spp was also associated with NoV-positive diagnosis (P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights the genetic variability of NoV and, associated co-infections and undernutrition in infants from low-income Brazilian semiarid region.

Prophage phiv142-3 enhances the colonization and resistance to environmental stresses of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli.

Bacterial acquisition of prophages reflects natural selection. Phage DNA has been shown to constitute up to 20% if bacterial genomes. However, prophages' role in Avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) is unclear. In this study, APEC strain DE142 harboring prophage phiv142-3, was subjected to deletion and the WT and deletion mutant were characterized under a range of conditions. Prophage deletion mutant DE142Δphiv142-3 was constructed and characterized. The DE142Δphiv142-3 colonies were much smaller than those of the wild-type, and the mutant cells were elongated. The mutant showed reduced adherence to DF-1 cells (87.4% reduction) compared to the wild-type (P < 0.001), and showed a significantly decreased resistance to the killing action of serum (P < 0.001). The mutant demonstrated 95.6%, 71.6%, and 99.6% reduced survival under acid, alkaline, and oxidative stress, respectively. In vitro competition assays showed that the cell number of the mutant was about one-tenth that of the wild-type (competitive index (CI) value, 0.1177). In vivo, the mutant showed significantly decreased colonization of chicken tissues compared with the wild-type. Thus phiv142-3 helps DE142 cope with adverse environments and aids bacterial colonization.

Characterization of the bacteriophages binding to human matrix molecules.

Recent literature has suggested a novel symbiotic relationship between bacteriophage and metazoan host that provides antimicrobial defense protecting mucosal surface by binding to host matrix mucin glycoproteins. Here, we isolated and studied different bacteriophages that specifically interact with human extracellular matrix molecules such as fibronectin, gelatin, heparin and demonstrated their potency for protection to host against microbial infections. We showed that subpopulations of bacteriophages that work against clinical isolates of Escherichia coli can bind to pure gelatin, fibronectin and heparin and reduced bacterial load in human colon cell line HT29. The bacteriophages were characterized with respect to their genome sizes, melting curve patterns and host tropism (cross-reactivity with different hosts). Since, the bacteriophages are non-toxic to the host and can effectively reduce bacterial load in HT29 cell line their therapeutic potency against bacterial infection could be explored.

Respiratory phagocytes are implicated in enhanced colibacillosis in chickens co-infected with influenza virus H9N2 and Escherichia coli.

1. The aim of this study was to determine the most likely time interval after infection with influenza virus H9N2 for co-infection with Escherichia coli to cause colibacillosis, the importance of lung load of E. coli and the involvement of respiratory phagocytes. 2. Specific pathogen free chickens were inoculated intranasally with 106EID50 of influenza virus or uninfected. After specified time intervals, 107 CFU E. coli or phosphate-buffered saline was inoculated. The presence of lesions, the number of respiratory phagocytes in the respiratory lavage fluid and the E. coli load in the lung were determined after different time intervals. 3. Compared with the number of lesions in chickens receiving only E. coli inoculation, the number lesions in co-infected chickens were increased at 0- and 3-d time intervals, but reduced in the groups at 6- and 9-d intervals between co-infection. 4. At 1-3 d after E. coli inoculation, the number of lesions chickens was correlated with the number of respiratory phagocytes harvested and related to the E. coli load in the lungs at 5 d. 5. These results suggest that the lesions caused by E. coli in chickens were increased within a 0-3 d interval following H9N2 virus inoculation and that this effect is related to the number of respiratory phagocytes.

Genotypic characterization of gentamicin and cephalosporin resistant Escherichia coli isolates from blood cultures in a Norwegian university hospital 2011-2015.

Background: Cephalosporin resistance in clinical E. coli isolates is increasing internationally. The increase has been caused by virulent and often multidrug-resistant clones, especially the extended spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL) producing E. coli clone O25b-ST131. Methods: In Norway, recommended empirical treatment of sepsis consists of gentamicin and penicillin combined, or a broad-spectrum cephalosporin. To investigate if increased gentamicin and cephalosporins resistance rates in our hospital could be caused by specific clones, we conducted a retrospective study on E. coli blood culture isolates from 2011 through 2015. All E. coli isolates non-susceptible to gentamicin and/or third-generation cephalosporins were genotyped using multiple-locus variable-number of tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) and compared with antibiotic susceptible isolates. The frequency of the most common genes causing ESBL production (blaCTX-M, blaampC) was examined by Real-Time PCR. Results: A total of 158 cephalosporin and/or gentamicin resistant and 97 control isolates were differentiated into 126 unique MLVA types. Of these, 31% of the isolates belonged to a major MLVA cluster consisting of 41% of the gentamicin resistant and 35% of the cephalosporin resistant isolates. The majority (65/80 isolates) of this MLVA cluster contained MLVA types associated with the E. coli O25b-ST131 clone. Genes encoding CTX-M enzyme phylogroups 1 and 9 occurred in 65% and 19% of cephalosporin resistant isolates, respectively, whereas blaampC-CIT was identified in 3%. Conclusion: No local E. coli bacteraemia clone was identified. Antibiotic resistance was dispersed over a variety of genotypes. However, association with the international E. coli O25b-ST131 clone was frequent and may be an important driver behind increased resistance rates. Monitoring and preventing dissemination of these resistant clones are important for continued optimal treatment.

Intrahost milieu modulates production of outer membrane vesicles, vesicle-associated Shiga toxin 2a and cytotoxicity in Escherichia coli O157:H7 and O104:H4.

Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are important virulence tools of enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC), but other biological functions of these nanostructures are unknown. We tested the hypothesis that modulation of OMV production enables EHEC to resist the intrahost environment during infection by investigating if simulated human gastrointestinal conditions affect OMV production in EHEC O157:H7 and O104:H4. All the conditions tested including a low pH, simulated ileal and colonic media, presence of mucin, intestinal epithelial cell lysate or antimicrobial peptides, as well as iron limitation, significantly increased OMV production by these pathogens. Accordingly, a maximum vesiculation in EHEC O104:H4 was observed immediately after its isolation from a patient's intestine, and rapidly decreased during passages in vitro. Most of the simulated intrahost conditions also upregulated the OMV-associated Shiga toxin 2a (Stx2a), the major EHEC virulence factor, and, as a result, OMV cytotoxicity. The data indicates that upregulation of OMV production by the human gastrointestinal milieu contributes to EHEC survival and adaptation within the host during infection. Moreover, the intrahost increase of vesiculation and OMV-associated Stx2a may augment EHEC virulence.

Intestinal organoids model human responses to infection by commensal and Shiga toxin producing Escherichia coli.

Infection with Shiga toxin (Stx) producing Escherichia coli O157:H7 can cause the potentially fatal complication hemolytic uremic syndrome, and currently only supportive therapy is available. Lack of suitable animal models has hindered study of this disease. Induced human intestinal organoids (iHIOs), generated by in vitro differentiation of pluripotent stem cells, represent differentiated human intestinal tissue. We show that iHIOs with addition of human neutrophils can model E. coli intestinal infection and innate cellular responses. Commensal and O157:H7 introduced into the iHIO lumen replicated rapidly achieving high numbers. Commensal E. coli did not cause damage, and were completely contained within the lumen, suggesting defenses, such as mucus production, can constrain non-pathogenic strains. Some O157:H7 initially co-localized with cellular actin. Loss of actin and epithelial integrity was observed after 4 hours. O157:H7 grew as filaments, consistent with activation of the bacterial SOS stress response. SOS is induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS), and O157:H7 infection increased ROS production. Transcriptional profiling (RNAseq) demonstrated that both commensal and O157:H7 upregulated genes associated with gastrointestinal maturation, while infection with O157:H7 upregulated inflammatory responses, including interleukin 8 (IL-8). IL-8 is associated with neutrophil recruitment, and infection with O157:H7 resulted in recruitment of human neutrophils into the iHIO tissue.