Novel alphaherpesvirus in a wild South American sea lion (Otaria byronia) with pulmonary tuberculosis.

In 2017, an adult male South American sea lion (Otaria byronia), presenting emaciation and a cervical abscess, stranded alive in Florianópolis, southern Brazil. The animal was directed to a rehabilitation center, dying a few days later. On necropsy, the main gross findings were necrotizing lymphadenitis of the right prescapular lymph node and nodular bronchopneumonia. A novel alphaherpesvirus, tentatively named Otariid alphaherpesvirus 1, was amplified in several tissue samples. No histopathologic findings associated with viral infection were observed. Additionally, pulmonary tuberculosis by Mycobacterium pinnipedii was diagnosed by histopathological, immunohistochemical, and molecular techniques. Several bacteria were cultured from antemortem and postmortem samples, including Proteus mirabilis from the cervical abscess and cardiac blood, and Escherichia coli from the cervical abscess and pericardial effusion. Flavivirus, morbillivirus, and Apicomplexa were not detected by molecular techniques. Herein, we report a novel alphaherpesvirus in a pinniped species of the family Otariidae. Although previously described in Southern Hemisphere pinniped species, including South American sea lions, there is limited information regarding M. pinnipedii impact over this group. Further research is required to determine the associated pathogenesis of this novel herpesvirus, and prevalence of Otariid alphaherpesvirus 1 and M. pinnipedii in the reproductive colonies.

Complex Virome in a Mesenteric Lymph Node from a Californian Sea Lion (Zalophus Californianus) with Polyserositis and Steatitis.

An emaciated subadult free-ranging California sea lion (Csl or Zalophus californianus) died following stranding with lesions similar to 11 other stranded animals characterized by chronic disseminated granulomatous inflammation with necrotizing steatitis and vasculitis, involving visceral adipose tissues in the thoracic and peritoneal cavities. Histologically, affected tissues had extensive accumulations of macrophages with perivascular lymphocytes, plasma cells, and fewer neutrophils. Using viral metagenomics on a mesenteric lymph node six mammalian viruses were identified consisting of novel parvovirus, polyomavirus, rotavirus, anellovirus, and previously described Csl adenovirus 1 and Csl bocavirus 4. The causal or contributory role of these viruses to the gross and histologic lesions of this sea lion remains to be determined.

Transcriptional Profiles of California Sea Lion Peripheral NK and CD+8 T Cells Reflect Ecological Regionalization and Infection by Oncogenic Viruses.

The California sea lion is one of the few wild mammals prone to develop cancer, particularly urogenital carcinoma (UGC), whose prevalence is currently estimated at 25% of dead adult sea lions stranded along the California coastline. Genetic factors, viruses and organochlorines have been identified as factors that increase the risk of occurrence of this pathology. Given that no cases of UGC have as yet been reported for the species along its distribution in Mexican waters, the potential relevance of contaminants for the development of urogenital carcinoma is highlighted even more as blubber levels of organochlorines are more than two orders of magnitude lower in the Gulf of California and Mexican Pacific than in California. In vitro studies have shown that organochlorines can modulate anti-viral and tumor-surveillance activities of NK and cytotoxic T-cells of marine mammals, but little is known about the activity of these effectors in live, free-living sea lions. Here, we examine leukocyte transcriptional profiles of free-ranging adult California sea lions for eight genes (Eomes, Granzyme B, Perforin, Ly49, STAT1, Tbx21, GATA3, and FoxP3) selected for their key role in anti-viral and tumor-surveillance, and investigate patterns of transcription that could be indicative of differences in ecological variables and exposure to two oncogenic viruses: sea lion type one gammaherpesvirus (OtHV-1) and sea lion papillomavirus type 1 (ZcPV-1) and systemic inflammation. We observed regional differences in the expression of genes related to Th1 responses and immune modulation, and detected clear patterns of differential regulation of gene expression in sea lions infected by genital papillomavirus compared to those infected by genital gammaherpesvirus or for simultaneous infections, similar to what is known about herpesvirus and papillomavirus infections in humans. Our study is a first approach to profile the transcriptional patterns of key immune effectors of free-ranging California sea lions and their association with ecological regions and oncogenic viruses. The observed results add insight to our understanding of immune competence of marine mammals, and may help elucidate the marked difference in the number of cases of urogenital carcinoma in sea lions from US waters and other areas of their distribution.

Two novel noroviruses and a novel norovirus genogroup in California sea lions.

In this study, two novel noroviruses (NoVs) were discovered from faecal samples from California sea lions from an oceanarium in Hong Kong, and named California sea lion NoV 1 (Csl/NoV1) and California sea lion NoV 2 (Csl/NoV2). Whole-genome sequencing showed that the genome organization and amino acid motifs of both Csl/NoV1 and Csl/NoV2 were typical of those of other NoVs in their open reading frames (ORFs). Csl/NoV1 possessed only 52.6-52.8 % amino acid identity in VP1 to the closest matches in genogroup GII. Therefore, Csl/NoV1 should constitute a novel genogroup of NoV. Shifting of the phylogenetic position of Csl/NoV1 in the RdRp, VP1 and VP2 trees was observed, which may have been due to recombination events and/or biased mutations. Csl/NoV2 possessed 55.4-56.2 % amino acid identity in VP1 to its closest relatives in genogroup GVI, which means that it represents a new genotype in genogroup GVI. Further studies will reveal what diseases these NoVs can cause in marine mammals.

PUP MORTALITY AND EVIDENCE FOR PATHOGEN EXPOSURE IN GALAPAGOS SEA LIONS (ZALOPHUS WOLLEBAEKI) ON SAN CRISTOBAL ISLAND, GALAPAGOS, ECUADOR.

The Galapagos sea lion ( Zalophus wollebaeki ), an endangered species, experiences high pup mortality (up to 100%) in years when El Niño events reduce food supply in the Galapagos Islands. Mortality of pups in non-El Niño years is estimated to be 5% in undisturbed colonies. From 2009 to 2012 we observed high pup mortality (up to 67%) in colonies close to the Galapagos capital, Puerto Baquerizo Moreno, where contact with humans, domestic animals, and rats is frequent. Gross postmortem findings from 54 pups included hemorrhagic lesions in liver and congestion in lungs; histopathology suggested a possible association with infectious diseases. Evidence of Leptospira infection was found in five out of seven samples collected in 2010. Canine distemper viral (CDV) RNA was detected in tissues from six sea lions (in 2011-12), four of which were confirmed by nucleotide sequencing. The absence of CDV antibodies in 109 juvenile animals tested in 2014 at urban and remote colonies could indicate that the CDV infection observed in 2011 was likely confined to a few animals. Our results indicated that Galapagos sea lions have been exposed at least to two pathogens, Leptospira and CDV; however, the impact of these infections on the sea lions is unclear.

A Systematic Review of Changes in Marine Mammal Health in North America, 1972-2012: The Need for a Novel Integrated Approach.

Marine mammals are often cited as "sentinels of ocean health" yet accessible, synthesized data on their health changes that could effectively warn of ocean health changes are rare. The objectives of this study were to 1) perform a systematic review of published cases of marine mammal disease to determine spatial and temporal trends in disease from 1972-2012, including changes in regions and taxa affected and specific causes; and 2) compare numbers of published cases of neoplasia with known, hospital-based neoplasia records to explore the causes of discrepancy between numbers of published cases and true disease trends. Peer-reviewed literature was compiled, and data were collected from The Marine Mammal Center database in Sausalito, California for comparison of numbers of neoplasia cases. Toxicoses from harmful algal blooms appear to be increasing. Viral epidemics are most common along the Atlantic U.S. coastline, while bacterial epidemics, especially leptospirosis, are most common along the Pacific coast. Certain protozoal and fungal zoonoses appear to be emerging, such as Toxoplasma gondii in southern sea otters in California, and Cryptococcus gattii in cetaceans in the Pacific Northwest. Disease reports were most common from California where pinniped populations are large, but increased effort also occurs. Anthropogenic trauma remains a large threat to marine mammal health, through direct mortality and indirect chronic disease. Neoplasia cases were under-reported from 2003-2012 when compared to true number of cases, and over-reported in several years due to case duplication. Peer-reviewed literature greatly underestimates the true magnitude of disease in marine mammals as it focuses on novel findings, fails to reflect etiology of multifactorial diseases, rarely reports prevalence rather than simple numbers of cases, and is typically presented years after a disease first occurs. Thus literature cannot guide management actions adequately, nor inform indices of ocean health. A real-time, nationally centralized system for reporting marine mammal disease data is needed to be able to understand how marine mammal diseases are changing with ecosystem changes, and before these animals can truly be considered 'sentinels of ocean health'.

Phylogenomic characterization of California sea lion adenovirus-1.

Significant adenoviral diversity has been found in humans, but in domestic and wild animals the number of identified viruses is lower. Here we present the complete genome of a recently discovered mastadenovirus, California sea lion adenovirus 1 (CSLAdV-1) isolated from California sea lions (Zalophus californianus), an important pathogen associated with hepatitis in pinnipeds. The genome of this virus has the typical mastadenoviral structure with some notable differences at the carboxy-terminal end, including a dUTPase that does not cluster with other mastadenoviral dUTPases, and a fiber that shows similarity to a trans-sialidase of Trypanosoma cruzi and choline-binding protein A (CbpA) of Streptococcus pneumoniae. The GC content is low (36%), and phylogenetic analyses placed the virus near the root of the clade infecting laurasiatherian hosts in the genus Mastadenovirus. These findings support the hypothesis that CSLAdV-1 in California sea lions represents a host jump from an unknown mammalian host in which it is endemic.

Sesavirus: prototype of a new parvovirus genus in feces of a sea lion.

We describe the nearly complete genome of a highly divergent parvovirus, we tentatively name Sesavirus, from the feces of a California sea lion pup (Zalophus californianus) suffering from malnutrition and pneumonia. The 5,049-base-long genome contained two major ORFs encoding a 553-aa nonstructural protein and a 965-aa structural protein which shared closest amino acid identities of 25 and 28 %, respectively, with members of the copiparvovirus genus known to infect pigs and cows. Given the low degree of similarity, Sesavirus might be considered as prototype for a new genus with a proposed name of Marinoparvovirus in the subfamily Parvovirinae.

Complete genome sequence of a novel picobirnavirus, otarine picobirnavirus, discovered in California sea lions.

We discovered a novel otarine picobirnavirus in fecal samples of California sea lions. Its genome contains a large segment with two open reading frames (ORFs), ORF1 encoding a putative protein of 163 amino acids with unknown function and ORF2 encoding capsid protein, and a small segment with one ORF encoding RNA-dependent RNA polymerase.

Characterization of a novel papillomavirus species (ZcPV1) from two California sea lions (Zalophus californianus).

A seven-year old California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) presented with focally extensive, bilaterally symmetric, proliferative axillary skin lesions and preputial lesions. A second California sea lion in the same population presented with similar proliferative lesions on the underside of the tail. Histopathology revealed epidermal hyperplasia with severe hyperkeratosis, with proliferating keratinocytes forming broad, branching pegs that extended into the dermis. Pan-papillomaviral consensus PCR was used to obtain initial E1 sequence template and the complete genome was determined using a combination of rolling circle amplification and specific-primer PCR. Analysis revealed a novel papillomavirus, Zalophus californianus papillomavirus 1 (ZcPV1), with seven open reading frames encoding five early proteins (E6, E7, E1, E2 and E4) and two late proteins (L1 and L2). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that (ZcPV1) is most closely related to Equine papillomavirus 1 (EcPV1) in the genus Zetapapillomavirus, and Canine papillomaviruses 3 and 4 (CPV3, CPV4) in the genus Chipapillomavirus. The lesions regressed without intervention over a period of several months.

The fecal viral flora of California sea lions.

California sea lions are one of the major marine mammal species along the Pacific coast of North America. Sea lions are susceptible to a wide variety of viruses, some of which can be transmitted to or from terrestrial mammals. Using an unbiased viral metagenomic approach, we surveyed the fecal virome in California sea lions of different ages and health statuses. Averages of 1.6 and 2.5 distinct mammalian viral species were shed by pups and juvenile sea lions, respectively. Previously undescribed mammalian viruses from four RNA virus families (Astroviridae, Picornaviridae, Caliciviridae, and Reoviridae) and one DNA virus family (Parvoviridae) were characterized. The first complete or partial genomes of sapeloviruses, sapoviruses, noroviruses, and bocavirus in marine mammals are reported. Astroviruses and bocaviruses showed the highest prevalence and abundance in California sea lion feces. The diversity of bacteriophages was higher in unweaned sea lion pups than in juveniles and animals in rehabilitation, where the phage community consisted largely of phages related to the family Microviridae. This study increases our understanding of the viral diversity in marine mammals, highlights the high rate of enteric viral infections in these highly social carnivores, and may be used as a baseline viral survey for comparison with samples from California sea lions during unexplained disease outbreaks.

Discovery of an orthoreovirus in the aborted fetus of a Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus).

An aborted mid-gestational male Steller sea lion fetus with an attached placenta was recovered on the floor of an open floating capture trap located off Norris Rock near Denman Island, British Columbia. Viral culture of the placenta demonstrated cytopathic effect. Although no specific signal was obtained in microarray experiments using RNA obtained from viral culture, elution and sequence analysis revealed the presence of a reovirus. Complete genome pyrosequencing led to the identification of an orthoreovirus that we have tentatively named Steller sea lion reovirus (SSRV). Phylogenetic analysis revealed similarities between SSRV and orthoreoviruses of birds, bats and other mammals that suggests potential for interspecies transmission.

Characterization of phylogenetically diverse astroviruses of marine mammals.

Astroviruses are small, non-enveloped, positive-stranded RNA viruses. Previously studied mammalian astroviruses have been associated with diarrhoeal disease. Knowledge of astrovirus diversity is very limited, with only six officially recognized astrovirus species from mammalian hosts and, in addition, one human and some bat astroviruses were recently described. We used consensus PCR techniques for initial identification of five astroviruses of marine mammals: three from California sea lions (Zalophus californianus), one from a Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus) and one from a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). Bayesian and maximum-likelihood phylogenetic analysis found that these viruses showed significant diversity at a level consistent with novel species. Astroviruses that we identified from marine mammals were found across the mamastrovirus tree and did not form a monophyletic group. Recombination analysis found that a recombination event may have occurred between a human and a California sea lion astrovirus, suggesting that both lineages may have been capable of infecting the same host at one point. The diversity found amongst marine mammal astroviruses and their similarity to terrestrial astroviruses suggests that the marine environment plays an important role in astrovirus ecology.

Characterization of San Miguel sea lion virus populations using pyrosequencing-based methods.

San Miguel Sea Lion Virus (SMSV) is a small RNA virus in the genus Vesivirus with an unusually broad host range. Three populations of SMSV were examined by PCR amplification of the capsid precursor and putative helicase genes, followed by pyrosequencing. The populations were nasal swabs from two SMSV infected California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) from two different years, and a virus isolate from the earlier swab that was passaged in cell culture five times. In the capsid precursor, extensive deletions were prevalent in the passaged virus but uncommon in the clinical samples. A greater prevalence of point mutations was seen in the capsid precursor gene than in the putative helicase gene. In culture, the minority sequence in the capsid precursor at nucleotide position 5826 rapidly shifted after five passages to become the majority sequence. Levels of diversity at individual sites showed much more similarity between the two clinical samples than between the earlier clinical sample and the passaged culture from the same sample. SMSV appears to behave as a quasispecies. Assessment of original patient samples is preferable for understanding clinical SMSV populations.

Expression and self-assembly of virus-like particles from two genotypes of marine vesiviruses and development of an ELISA for the detection of antibodies.

Sequences encoding the major and minor capsid proteins (VP1 and VP2) from two marine vesivirus isolates (Steller sea lion viruses V810 and V1415) were engineered for expression of virus-like particles (VLPs) in the baculovirus system. The resulting VLPs were morphologically similar to native vesivirus virions. Purified VLPs were probed in immunoblots with pooled antisera specific for nine San Miguel sea lion virus (SMSV) types, and a predominant protein of approximately 60kDa was detected. An enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of antibodies was developed in which the VLPs served as antigen. The VLPs were adsorbed to the wells of a microplate, and the specificity of the ELISA was established with hyperimmune sera raised against 24 serotypes of the genus Vesivirus. The ELISA was used to screen for the presence of vesivirus specific antibodies in the sera of free-ranging Steller sea lions. The ELISA results demonstrated that Steller sea lions that inhabit the Pacific Ocean waters of southeast Alaska are widely exposed to antigenically related marine vesiviruses, while no previous exposure could be demonstrated using VLP antigens in 17 Steller sea lions from the Aleutian Islands. The broad reactivity of these VLPs and their non-infectious nature will facilitate global sero-epidemiological studies aimed at determining the incidence and prevalence of marine vesiviruses in mammals that inhabit the Pacific and Atlantic oceans as well as susceptible terrestrial animals.

Rotavirus infections in Galapagos sea lions.

Group A rotaviruses infect and cause diarrhea in the young of a broad range of terrestrial mammals, but it is unknown, to our knowledge, whether they infect marine mammals. During February and March of 2002 and 2003, we collected 125 serum samples and 18 rectal swab samples from Galapagos sea lion pups (GSL, Zalophus wollebaeki), and 22 serum samples from Galapagos fur seal pups (GFS, Arctocephalus galapagoensis) from nine islands of the Galapagos archipelago, Ecuador. Sera were tested for antibodies (immunoglobulin G [IgG]) to rotavirus by an enzyme immunoassay using rhesus rotavirus as the capture antigen. In addition, rectal swabs were analyzed for the presence of rotavirus genomic double-stranded RNA by silver-stained polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Antibodies to rotavirus were detected in 27 GSL pups (22%) and five GFS pups (23%), and rotavirus RNA was detected in the fecal sample from one GSL pup (6%). These results provide the first evidence that rotavirus infections are prevalent at an early age in Galapagos sea lions and Galapagos fur seals.

Genomic characterization of novel marine vesiviruses from Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) from Alaska.

Marine vesiviruses were isolated in cell culture from oral and rectal swabs and vesicular fluid from Alaskan Steller sea lions (SSL; Eumetopias jubatus). Further characterization by RT-PCR, complete genomic sequencing, and phylogenetic analyses indicated that these viruses are most closely related to the marine vesiviruses, but are distinct viruses and represent two novel genotypes. The complete genome of these two SSL isolates was sequenced after cloning their viral cDNA. The genomes were found to be 8302 and 8305 nucleotides in length, organized in three open reading frames and contained 5' and 3' untranslated regions (UTR) of 19 and 180 nucleotides, respectively. The complete genomes of both SSL viruses were most closely related to each other and shared 83.0% nucleotide identity. Using the very limited number of complete genomic vesivirus sequences available in the NCBI database, these novel SSL vesiviruses seem most closely related to vesicular exanthema of swine virus-A48 and least related to rabbit vesivirus and walrus calicivirus. Specific antiserum against some evolutionary closer marine vesiviruses did not neutralize these isolates supporting the novel nature of these SSL viruses.

In vitro susceptibility of sea lion poxvirus to cidofovir.

Parapoxviruses of seals and sea lions are commonly encountered pathogens with zoonotic potential. The antiviral activity of the antiviral compounds isatin-beta-thiosemicarbazone, rifampicin, acyclovir, cidofovir and phosphonoacetic acid against a parapoxvirus (SLPV-1) isolated from a Californian sea lions (Zalophus californianus) was evaluated. Cidofovir was able to reduce virus-induced cytopathic effect of SLPV-1 in confluent monolayers when used in concentrations greater than 2microg/ml. A decreasing virus yield was observed in the presence of increasing concentrations of cidofovir, which confirmed the ability of cidofovir to inhibit SLPV-1 replication. The in vitro efficacy of cidofovir against SLPV-1 indicates the therapeutic potential of cidofovir for the treatment of infections of humans and pinnipeds with parapoxviruses of seals and sea lions. This study confirms the previously proposed therapeutic potential of cidofovir for the treatment of parapoxvirus infections.

Age-prevalence of Otarine Herpesvirus-1, a tumor-associated virus, and possibility of its sexual transmission in California sea lions.

Otarine Herpesvirus-1 (OtHV-1) is a gammaherpesvirus routinely detected in urogenital tumor tissues of adult sea lions dying during rehabilitation, To investigate the epidemiology of this virus and guide the development of a mathematical model of its role in the multifactorial etiology of cancer in California sea lions, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of an OtHV-1 specific fragment of the DNA polymerase gene was used to look for evidence of OtHV-1 infection in urogenital and pharyngeal swabs and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of sea lions of different ages. Samples were also examined from pregnant females and their late term in utero or aborted fetuses to investigate potential for vertical transmission. Prevalence of infection in 72 adult females was 22%, whereas it was 46% in 52 adult males, and was significantly lower in 120 juvenile animals (6%). OtHV-1 DNA was most often detected in the lower reproductive tract of the adult animals, especially the males, and rarely in the pharynx or urogenital tract of juvenile animals. These data suggest sexual transmission may an important route of transmission. Additional studies are required to confirm this mode of transmission. Additionally, the virus was detected in a single prematurely born pup, suggesting the possibility of perinatal transmission. No indication of a PBMC associated viremia was evident in adults using standard PCR or in juveniles using standard and real time PCR.

Otarine Herpesvirus-1, not papillomavirus, is associated with endemic tumours in California sea lions (Zalophus californianus).

The purpose of this study was to determine if Otarine Herpesvirus-1 (OtHV-1) is associated with the presence of urogenital carcinomas in California sea lions. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis with primers specific for OtHV-1 was used to compare the prevalence of OtHV-1 infection in 15 sea lions affected by urogenital carcinoma with that of age-matched and juvenile tumour-free animals, and animals with tumours of non-urogenital origin. The herpesvirus was more prevalent (100%) and more widespread in the 15 animals with urogenital carcinoma than in 25 control animals, and was most often found in the urogenital tissue (vagina and prostate) and in the draining lymph nodes. Moreover, OtHV-1 DNA was not found in any juvenile animal, or in the neoplastic tissues of animals with non-urogenital tumours. Papillomavirus-specific PCR analysis of urogenital carcinoma tissues detected papillomavirus sequences in only one carcinomatous tissue. Further studies are needed to determine if OtHV-1 contributes to oncogenesis in the California sea lion; these data show, however, that OtHV-1 is associated with urogenital carcinomas, is preferentially present in urogenital tissues, and may be sexually transmitted. Papillomaviruses, which are known to contribute to urogenital tumours in other species, did not appear to be associated with the sea lion carcinomas.