Leishmania type II dehydrogenase is essential for parasite viability irrespective of the presence of an active complex I.

Type II NADH dehydrogenases (NDH2) are monotopic enzymes present in the external or internal face of the mitochondrial inner membrane that contribute to NADH/NAD+ balance by conveying electrons from NADH to ubiquinone without coupled proton translocation. Herein, we characterize the product of a gene present in all species of the human protozoan parasite Leishmania as a bona fide, matrix-oriented, type II NADH dehydrogenase. Within mitochondria, this respiratory activity concurs with that of type I NADH dehydrogenase (complex I) in some Leishmania species but not others. To query the significance of NDH2 in parasite physiology, we attempted its genetic disruption in two parasite species, exhibiting a silent (Leishmania infantum, Li) and a fully operational (Leishmania major, Lm) complex I. Strikingly, this analysis revealed that NDH2 abrogation is not tolerated by Leishmania, not even by complex I-expressing Lm species. Conversely, complex I is dispensable in both species, provided that NDH2 is sufficiently expressed. That a type II dehydrogenase is essential even in the presence of an active complex I places Leishmania NADH metabolism into an entirely unique perspective and suggests unexplored functions for NDH2 that span beyond its complex I-overlapping activities. Notably, by showing that the essential character of NDH2 extends to the disease-causing stage of Leishmania, we genetically validate NDH2-an enzyme without a counterpart in mammals-as a candidate target for leishmanicidal drugs.

Peculiarities of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases from trypanosomatids.

Trypanosomatid parasites are responsible for various human diseases, such as sleeping sickness, animal trypanosomiasis, or cutaneous and visceral leishmaniases. The few available drugs to fight related parasitic infections are often toxic and present poor efficiency and specificity, and thus, finding new molecular targets is imperative. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (aaRSs) are essential components of the translational machinery as they catalyze the specific attachment of an amino acid onto cognate tRNA(s). In trypanosomatids, one gene encodes both cytosolic- and mitochondrial-targeted aaRSs, with only three exceptions. We identify here a unique specific feature of aaRSs from trypanosomatids, which is that most of them harbor distinct insertion and/or extension sequences. Among the 26 identified aaRSs in the trypanosome Leishmania tarentolae, 14 contain an additional domain or a terminal extension, confirmed in mature mRNAs by direct cDNA nanopore sequencing. Moreover, these RNA-Seq data led us to address the question of aaRS dual localization and to determine splice-site locations and the 5'-UTR lengths for each mature aaRS-encoding mRNA. Altogether, our results provided evidence for at least one specific mechanism responsible for mitochondrial addressing of some L. tarentolae aaRSs. We propose that these newly identified features of trypanosomatid aaRSs could be developed as relevant drug targets to combat the diseases caused by these parasites.

Heme Oxygenase-1 Induction by Blood-Feeding Arthropods Controls Skin Inflammation and Promotes Disease Tolerance.

Hematophagous vectors lacerate host skin and capillaries to acquire a blood meal, resulting in leakage of red blood cells (RBCs) and inflammation. Here, we show that heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), a pleiotropic cytoprotective isoenzyme that mitigates heme-mediated tissue damage, is induced after bites of sand flies, mosquitoes, and ticks. Further, we demonstrate that erythrophagocytosis by macrophages, including a skin-residing CD163+CD91+ professional iron-recycling subpopulation, produces HO-1 after bites. Importantly, we establish that global deletion or transient inhibition of HO-1 in mice increases inflammation and pathology following Leishmania-infected sand fly bites without affecting parasite number, whereas CO, an end product of the HO-1 enzymatic reaction, suppresses skin inflammation. This indicates that HO-1 induction by blood-feeding sand flies promotes tolerance to Leishmania infection. Collectively, our data demonstrate that HO-1 induction through erythrophagocytosis is a universal mechanism that regulates skin inflammation following blood feeding by arthropods, thus promoting early-stage disease tolerance to vector-borne pathogens.

Multi-target drugs active against leishmaniasis: A paradigm of drug repurposing.

This mini-review focuses on leishmanicidal drugs that were sourced from small molecules previously approved for other diseases. The mechanisms of action of these molecules are herein explored, to probe the origins of their inter-species growth inhibitory activities. It is shown how the transversal action of the azoles - fluconazole, posaconazole and itraconazole - in both fungi and Leishmania is due to the occurrence of the same target, lanosterol 14-α-demethylase, in these two groups of species. In turn, the drugs miltefosine and amphotericin B are presented as truly multi-target agents, acting on small molecules, proteins, genes and even organelles. Steps towards future leishmanicidal drug candidates based on the multi-target strategy and on drug repurposing are also briefly presented.

Cyclic Nucleotide-Specific Phosphodiesterases as Potential Drug Targets for Anti-Leishmania Therapy.

The available treatments for leishmaniasis are less than optimal due to inadequate efficacy, toxic side effects, and the emergence of resistant strains, clearly endorsing the urgent need for discovery and development of novel drug candidates. Ideally, these should act via an alternative mechanism of action to avoid cross-resistance with the current drugs. As cyclic nucleotide-specific phosphodiesterases (PDEs) of Leishmania major have been postulated as putative drug targets, a series of potential inhibitors of Leishmania PDEs were explored. Several displayed potent and selective in vitro activity against L. infantum intracellular amastigotes. One imidazole derivative, compound 35, was shown to reduce the parasite loads in vivo and to increase the cellular cyclic AMP (cAMP) level at in a dose-dependent manner at just 2× and 5× the 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50), indicating a correlation between antileishmanial activity and increased cellular cAMP levels. Docking studies and molecular dynamics simulations pointed to imidazole 35 exerting its activity through PDE inhibition. This study establishes for the first time that inhibition of cAMP PDEs can potentially be exploited for new antileishmanial chemotherapy.

Polyamine-trypanothione pathway: an update.

In trypanosomatids, polyamine and trypanothione pathways can be considered as a whole unique metabolism, where most enzymes are essential for parasitic survival and infectivity. Leishmania parasites and all the other members of the Trypanosomatids family depend on polyamines for growth and survival: the enzymes involved in the synthesis and utilization of spermidine and trypanothione, i.e., arginase, ornithine decarboxylase, S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase, spermidine synthase and in particular trypanothione synthetase-amidase, trypanothione reductase and tryparedoxin-dependent peroxidase are promising targets for drug development. This review deals with recent structure-based studies on these enzymes, aimed at the discovery of inhibitors of this pathway.

The Src kinases Hck, Fgr and Lyn activate Arg to facilitate IgG-mediated phagocytosis and Leishmania infection.

Leishmaniasis is a devastating disease that disfigures or kills nearly two million people each year. Establishment and persistence of infection by the obligate intracellular parasite Leishmania requires repeated uptake by macrophages and other phagocytes. Therefore, preventing uptake could be a novel therapeutic strategy for leishmaniasis. Amastigotes, the life cycle stage found in the human host, bind Fc receptors and enter macrophages primarily through immunoglobulin-mediated phagocytosis. However, the host machinery that mediates amastigote uptake is poorly understood. We have previously shown that the Arg (also known as Abl2) non-receptor tyrosine kinase facilitates L. amazonensis amastigote uptake by macrophages. Using small-molecule inhibitors and primary macrophages lacking specific Src family kinases, we now demonstrate that the Hck, Fgr and Lyn kinases are also necessary for amastigote uptake by macrophages. Src-mediated Arg activation is required for efficient uptake. Interestingly, the dual Arg and Src kinase inhibitor bosutinib, which is approved to treat cancer, not only decreases amastigote uptake, but also significantly reduces disease severity and parasite burden in Leishmania-infected mice. Our results suggest that leishmaniasis could potentially be treated with host-cell-active agents such as kinase inhibitors.

TNF-Mediated Restriction of Arginase 1 Expression in Myeloid Cells Triggers Type 2 NO Synthase Activity at the Site of Infection.

Neutralization or deletion of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) causes loss of control of intracellular pathogens in mice and humans, but the underlying mechanisms are incompletely understood. Here, we found that TNF antagonized alternative activation of macrophages and dendritic cells by IL-4. TNF inhibited IL-4-induced arginase 1 (Arg1) expression by decreasing histone acetylation, without affecting STAT6 phosphorylation and nuclear translocation. In Leishmania major-infected C57BL/6 wild-type mice, type 2 nitric oxide (NO) synthase (NOS2) was detected in inflammatory dendritic cells or macrophages, some of which co-expressed Arg1. In TNF-deficient mice, Arg1 was hyperexpressed, causing an impaired production of NO in situ. A similar phenotype was seen in L. major-infected BALB/c mice. Arg1 deletion in hematopoietic cells protected these mice from an otherwise lethal disease, although their disease-mediating T cell response (Th2, Treg) was maintained. Thus, deletion or TNF-mediated restriction of Arg1 unleashes the production of NO by NOS2, which is critical for pathogen control.

Induction, Propagation, and Activity of Host Nitric Oxide: Lessons from Leishmania Infection.

The production of nitric oxide (NO) by the inducible NO synthase (iNOS) is a key defense mechanism against intracellular pathogens such as Leishmania. Numerous studies have investigated the antimicrobial properties of this small molecule in vitro but its precise mode of action during Leishmania infection in vivo is still unclear. In this review, we discuss how iNOS is induced in infected tissues and how NO acts to control the expansion of Leishmania parasites and limit tissue damage resulting from the infection. We highlight recently described mechanisms that result in widespread iNOS expression in infected tissues. We also discuss how the collective production and subsequent diffusion of NO generates an antimicrobial milieu that promotes parasite control at the tissue level.

In silico search of energy metabolism inhibitors for alternative leishmaniasis treatments.

Leishmaniasis is a complex disease that affects mammals and is caused by approximately 20 distinct protozoa from the genus Leishmania. Leishmaniasis is an endemic disease that exerts a large socioeconomic impact on poor and developing countries. The current treatment for leishmaniasis is complex, expensive, and poorly efficacious. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop more selective, less expensive new drugs. The energy metabolism pathways of Leishmania include several interesting targets for specific inhibitors. In the present study, we sought to establish which energy metabolism enzymes in Leishmania could be targets for inhibitors that have already been approved for the treatment of other diseases. We were able to identify 94 genes and 93 Leishmania energy metabolism targets. Using each gene's designation as a search criterion in the TriTrypDB database, we located the predicted peptide sequences, which in turn were used to interrogate the DrugBank, Therapeutic Target Database (TTD), and PubChem databases. We identified 44 putative targets of which 11 are predicted to be amenable to inhibition by drugs which have already been approved for use in humans for 11 of these targets. We propose that these drugs should be experimentally tested and potentially used in the treatment of leishmaniasis.

E-NTPDase (ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase) of Leishmania amazonensis inhibits macrophage activation.

Leishmania amazonensis, the causal agent of diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis, is known for its ability to modulate the host immune response. Because a relationship between ectonucleotidase activity and the ability of Leishmania to generate injury in C57BL/6 mice has been demonstrated, in this study we evaluated the involvement of ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDase) activity of L. amazonensis in the process of infection of J774-macrophages. Our results show that high-activity parasites show increased survival rate in LPS/IFN-γ-activated cells, by inhibiting the host-cell NO production. Conversely, inhibition of E-NTPDase activity reduces the parasite survival rates, an effect associated with increased macrophage NO production. E-NTPDase activity generates substrate for the production of extracellular adenosine, which binds to A2B receptors and reduces IL-12 and TNF-α produced by activated macrophages, thus inhibiting NO production. These results indicate that E-NTPDase activity is important for survival of L. amazonensis within macrophages, showing the role of the enzyme in modulating macrophage response and lower NO production, which ultimately favors infection. Our results point to a new mechanism of L. amazonensis infection that may pave the way for the development of new treatments for this neglected disease.

Lundep, a sand fly salivary endonuclease increases Leishmania parasite survival in neutrophils and inhibits XIIa contact activation in human plasma.

Neutrophils are the host's first line of defense against infections, and their extracellular traps (NET) were recently shown to kill Leishmania parasites. Here we report a NET-destroying molecule (Lundep) from the salivary glands of Lutzomyia longipalpis. Previous analysis of the sialotranscriptome of Lu. longipalpis showed the potential presence of an endonuclease. Indeed, not only was the cloned cDNA (Lundep) shown to encode a highly active ss- and dsDNAse, but also the same activity was demonstrated to be secreted by salivary glands of female Lu. longipalpis. Lundep hydrolyzes both ss- and dsDNA with little sequence specificity with a calculated DNase activity of 300000 Kunitz units per mg of protein. Disruption of PMA (phorbol 12 myristate 13 acetate)- or parasite-induced NETs by treatment with recombinant Lundep or salivary gland homogenates increases parasite survival in neutrophils. Furthermore, co-injection of recombinant Lundep with metacyclic promastigotes significantly exacerbates Leishmania infection in mice when compared with PBS alone or inactive (mutagenized) Lundep. We hypothesize that Lundep helps the parasite to establish an infection by allowing it to escape from the leishmanicidal activity of NETs early after inoculation. Lundep may also assist blood meal intake by lowering the local viscosity caused by the release of host DNA and as an anticoagulant by inhibiting the intrinsic pathway of coagulation.

Novel fragment-based QSAR modeling and combinatorial design of pyrazole-derived CRK3 inhibitors as potent antileishmanials.

The CRK3 cyclin-dependent kinase of Leishmania plays an important role in regulating the cell-cycle progression at the G2/M phase checkpoint transition, proliferation, and viability inside the host macrophage. In this study, a novel fragment-based QSAR model has been developed using 22 pyrazole-derived compounds exhibiting inhibitory activity against Leishmanial CRK3. Unlike other QSAR methods, this fragment-based method gives flexibility to study the relationship between molecular fragments of interest and their contribution for the variation in the biological response by evaluating cross-term fragment descriptors. Based on the fragment-based QSAR model, a combinatorial library was generated, and top two compounds were reported after predicting their activity. The QSAR model showed satisfactory statistical parameters for the data set (r(2) = 0.8752, q(2) = 0.6690, F-ratio = 30.37, and pred_r(2) = 0.8632) with four descriptors describing the nature of substituent groups and the environment of the substitution site. Evaluation of the model implied that electron-rich substitution at R1 position improves the inhibitory activity, while decline in inhibitory activity was observed in presence of nitrogen at R2 position. The analysis carried out in this study provides a substantial basis for consideration of the designed pyrazole-based leads as potent antileishmanial drugs.

Cheminformatic models based on machine learning for pyruvate kinase inhibitors of Leishmania mexicana.

BACKGROUND: Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease which affects approx. 12 million individuals worldwide and caused by parasite Leishmania. The current drugs used in the treatment of Leishmaniasis are highly toxic and has seen widespread emergence of drug resistant strains which necessitates the need for the development of new therapeutic options. The high throughput screen data available has made it possible to generate computational predictive models which have the ability to assess the active scaffolds in a chemical library followed by its ADME/toxicity properties in the biological trials. RESULTS: In the present study, we have used publicly available, high-throughput screen datasets of chemical moieties which have been adjudged to target the pyruvate kinase enzyme of L. mexicana (LmPK). The machine learning approach was used to create computational models capable of predicting the biological activity of novel antileishmanial compounds. Further, we evaluated the molecules using the substructure based approach to identify the common substructures contributing to their activity. CONCLUSION: We generated computational models based on machine learning methods and evaluated the performance of these models based on various statistical figures of merit. Random forest based approach was determined to be the most sensitive, better accuracy as well as ROC. We further added a substructure based approach to analyze the molecules to identify potentially enriched substructures in the active dataset. We believe that the models developed in the present study would lead to reduction in cost and length of clinical studies and hence newer drugs would appear faster in the market providing better healthcare options to the patients.

Análise funcional dos genes Ferro Superóxido Dismutase-A e Proteína de Membrana dos Kinetoplastídeos-11 em linhagens de Leishmania selvagens e resistentes ao antimonial trivalente / Functional analysis of genes iron superoxide dismutase-A and Membrane Protein-11 in the kinetoplastids Leishmania strains of wild-resistant trivalent antimony

Em nosso estudo caracterizamos a enzima ferro superóxido dismutase-A (FeSOD-A) e a proteína de membrana dos kinetoplastídeos-11 (KMP-11) em linhagens de Leishmania spp. do Novo Mundo selvagens e resistentes aos antimoniais. Ambas proteínas apresentam grande relevância no metabolismo do parasito, visto que a enzima FeSOD-A está envolvida na defesa antioxidante e KMP-11, presente na superfície da membrana dos kinetoplastídeos, pode estar relacionada ao fenótipo de resistência do parasito ao antimonial. Análise de Southern blot mostrou a presença de polimorfismos na sequência do gene FeSOD-A entre as linhagens de Leishmania avaliadas. A expressão de FeSOD-A foi analisada utilizando anticorpo policlonal (TcFeSOD) que reconheceu um polipeptídio de 26 kDa em todas as linhagens estudadas. Quantificação por qPCR mostrou que o mRNA do gene é 3,6X menos expresso na linhagem L. guyanensis resistente LgSbR, por outro lado a proteína está 2,0X mais expressa nessa linhagem. A FeSOD-A está 3,0X menos expressa em L. amazonensis resistente LaSbR, mas o nível de mRNA foi o mesmo entre as linhagens LaWTS e LaSbR. Ensaios de atividade enzimática mostraram que FESOD-A possui maior atividade nas linhagens resistentes de L. braziliensis e L. infantum chagasi (LbSbR e LcSbR) comparado com as linhagens selvagens. A análise funcional foi realizada para determinar se a superexpressão do gene FeSOD-A nas linhagens LbWTS/LbSbR e LcWTS/LcSbR iria alterar o fenótipo de resistência dos parasitos transfectados. Ensaios de Western blot e de atividade enzimática mostraram que o nível de expressão da proteína e atividade da FeSOD-A foram maiores nos parasitos transfectados em comparação com os não-transfectados. Análise IC50 do SbIII mostrou que a superexpressão FeSOD-A nas linhagens de LbWTS e LcWTS aumentou 1,7X e 1,6X o fenótipo de resistência ao antimônio, respectivamente. A superexpressão da enzima FeSOD-A na linhagem LbSbR reduziu o fenótipo resistência, enquanto que na linhagem LcSbR não houve alteração no fenótipo. Resultados de tolerância ao estresse oxidativo induzido por paraquat mostrou que o clone superexpressor de LbWTS apresentou maior proteção ao estresse comparado à linhagem não-transfectada. Concluindo, nossos resultados sugerem que a enzima FeSOD-A está envolvida no fenótipo de resistência de L. braziliensis e L. chagasi ao antimonial. Para o gene KMP-11 análise por Southern blot mostrou semelhante perfil de hibridização entre as diferentes espécies analisadas, com exceção da linhagem LgWTS que apresentou perfil de fragmentos diferentes. Análise de Northern blot revelou a presença de dois transcritos, 1,0 Kb e 3,0 Kb, em todas as linhagens de Leishmania spp., com exceção da linhagem LgWTS que apresentou apenas um transcrito de 1,0 Kb. Quantificação por qPCR mostrou que mRNA do gene KMP-11 está 2,9X menos expresso na linhagem de LbSbR e 1,5X mais expresso na linhagem LcSbR comparado com os respectivos pares selvagens. A expressão de KMP-11 utilizando anticorpo policlonal anti-KMP-11, mostrou que ele reconheceu um polipeptídio de 11 kDa em todas as linhagens de Leishmania spp. estudadas. Análises de densitometria mostraram que KMP-11 está 1,5X mais expressa em LcSbR comparado com o par selvagem LcWTS e 2,0X menos expressa em LbSbR comparado ao par LbWTS. Ensaios de transfecção do gene KMP-11 foram realizados nas linhagens LbWTS e LbSbR. Análise de Western blot mostrou maior expressão da proteína KMP-11 nos parasitos resistentes transfectados. Avaliação da susceptibilidade ao SbIII mostrou que a superexpressão de KMP-11 na linhagem selvagem de LbWTS não alterou o fenótipo. Por outro lado, a superexpressão dessa proteína na linhagem resistente (LbSbR) reduziu o fenótipo resistência. Ensaios in vitro e in vivo com as linhagens LbWTS não-transfectadas e os clones transfectados com KMP-11 não mostraram diferenças quanto à infectividade dos parasitos em células THP-1 e em camundongos nocaute para interferon-γ. Apenas o clone 6 apresentou menor infectividade em camundongos. Estudos adicionais são necessários para investigar melhor a possível participação da proteína KMP-11 no fenótipo de resistência ao antimonial e na infectividade dos parasitos.

Análise funcional dos genes Ferro Superóxido Dismutase-A e Proteína de Membrana dos Kinetoplastídeos-11 em linhagens de Leishmania selvagens e resistentes ao antimonial trivalente

Em nosso estudo caracterizamos a enzima ferro superóxido dismutase-A (FeSOD-A) e a proteína de membrana dos kinetoplastídeos-11 (KMP-11) em linhagens de Leishmania spp. do Novo Mundo selvagens e resistentes aos antimoniais. Ambas proteínas apresentam grande relevância no metabolismo do parasito, visto que a enzima FeSOD-A está envolvida na defesa antioxidante e KMP-11, presente na superfície da membrana dos kinetoplastídeos, pode estar relacionada ao fenótipo de resistência do parasito ao antimonial. Análise de Southern blot mostrou a presença de polimorfismos na sequência do gene FeSOD-A entre as linhagens de Leishmania avaliadas. A expressão de FeSOD-A foi analisada utilizando anticorpo policlonal (TcFeSOD) que reconheceu um polipeptídio de 26 kDa em todas as linhagens estudadas. Quantificação por qPCR mostrou que o mRNA do gene é 3,6X menos expresso na linhagem L. guyanensis resistente LgSbR, por outro lado a proteína está 2,0X mais expressa nessa linhagem. A FeSOD-A está 3,0X menos expressa em L. amazonensis resistente LaSbR, mas o nível de mRNA foi o mesmo entre as linhagens LaWTS e LaSbR. Ensaios de atividade enzimática mostraram que FESOD-A possui maior atividade nas linhagens resistentes de L. braziliensis e L. infantum chagasi (LbSbR e LcSbR) comparado com as linhagens selvagens. A análise funcional foi realizada para determinar se a superexpressão do gene FeSOD-A nas linhagens LbWTS/LbSbR e LcWTS/LcSbR iria alterar o fenótipo de resistência dos parasitos transfectados. Ensaios de Western blot e de atividade enzimática mostraram que o nível de expressão da proteína e atividade da FeSOD-A foram maiores nos parasitos transfectados em comparação com os não-transfectados. Análise IC50 do SbIII mostrou que a superexpressão FeSOD-A nas linhagens de LbWTS e LcWTS aumentou 1,7X e 1,6X o fenótipo de resistência ao antimônio, respectivamente.

A superexpressão da enzima FeSOD-A na linhagem LbSbR reduziu o fenótipo resistência, enquanto que na linhagem LcSbR não houve alteração no fenótipo. Resultados de tolerância ao estresse oxidativo induzido por paraquat mostrou que o clone superexpressor de LbWTS apresentou maior proteção ao estresse comparado à linhagem não-transfectada. Concluindo, nossos resultados sugerem que a enzima FeSOD-A está envolvida no fenótipo de resistência de L. braziliensis e L. chagasi ao antimonial. Para o gene KMP-11 análise por Southern blot mostrou semelhante perfil de hibridização entre as diferentes espécies analisadas, com exceção da linhagem LgWTS que apresentou perfil de fragmentos diferentes. Análise de Northern blot revelou a presença de dois transcritos, 1,0 Kb e 3,0 Kb, em todas as linhagens de Leishmania spp., com exceção da linhagem LgWTS que apresentou apenas um transcrito de 1,0 Kb. Quantificação por qPCR mostrou que mRNA do gene KMP-11 está 2,9X menos expresso na linhagem de LbSbR e 1,5X mais expresso na linhagem LcSbR comparado com os respectivos pares selvagens. A expressão de KMP-11 utilizando anticorpo policlonal anti-KMP-11, mostrou que ele reconheceu um polipeptídio de 11 kDa em todas as linhagens de Leishmania spp. estudadas.

Análises de densitometria mostraram que KMP-11 está 1,5X mais expressa em LcSbR comparado com o par selvagem LcWTS e 2,0X menos expressa em LbSbR comparado ao par LbWTS. Ensaios de transfecção do gene KMP-11 foram realizados nas linhagens LbWTS e LbSbR. Análise de Western blot mostrou maior expressão da proteína KMP-11 nos parasitos resistentes transfectados. Avaliação da susceptibilidade ao SbIII mostrou que a superexpressão de KMP-11 na linhagem selvagem de LbWTS não alterou o fenótipo. Por outro lado, a superexpressão dessa proteína na linhagem resistente (LbSbR) reduziu o fenótipo resistência. Ensaios in vitro e in vivo com as linhagens LbWTS não-transfectadas e os clones transfectados com KMP-11 não mostraram diferenças quanto à infectividade dos parasitos em células THP-1 e em camundongos nocaute para interferon-γ. Apenas o clone 6 apresentou menor infectividade em camundongos. Estudos adicionais são necessários para investigar melhor a possível participação da proteína KMP-11 no fenótipo de resistência ao antimonial e na infectividade dos parasitos.

Leishmaniasis: current status of available drugs and new potential drug targets.

The control of Leishmania infection relies primarily on chemotherapy till date. Resistance to pentavalent antimonials, which have been the recommended drugs to treat cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, is now widespread in Indian subcontinents. New drug formulations like amphotericin B, its lipid formulations, and miltefosine have shown great efficacy to treat leishmaniasis but their high cost and therapeutic complications limit their usefulness. In addition, irregular and inappropriate uses of these second line drugs in endemic regions like state of Bihar, India threaten resistance development in the parasite. In context to the limited drug options and unavailability of either preventive or prophylactic candidates, there is a pressing need to develop true antileishmanial drugs to reduce the disease burden of this debilitating endemic disease. Notwithstanding significant progress of leishmanial research during last few decades, identification and characterization of novel drugs and drug targets are far from satisfactory. This review will initially describe current drug regimens and later will provide an overview on few important biochemical and enzymatic machineries that could be utilized as putative drug targets for generation of true antileishmanial drugs.

Crystal structure of dihydroorotate dehydrogenase from Leishmania major.

Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH) is the fourth enzyme in the de novo pyrimidine biosynthetic pathway and has been exploited as the target for therapy against proliferative and parasitic diseases. In this study, we report the crystal structures of DHODH from Leishmania major, the species of Leishmania associated with zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis, in its apo form and in complex with orotate and fumarate molecules. Both orotate and fumarate were found to bind to the same active site and exploit similar interactions, consistent with a ping-pong mechanism described for class 1A DHODHs. Analysis of LmDHODH structures reveals that rearrangements in the conformation of the catalytic loop have direct influence on the dimeric interface. This is the first structural evidence of a relationship between the dimeric form and the catalytic mechanism. According to our analysis, the high sequence and structural similarity observed among trypanosomatid DHODH suggest that a single strategy of structure-based inhibitor design can be used to validate DHODH as a druggable target against multiple neglected tropical diseases such as Leishmaniasis, Sleeping sickness and Chagas' diseases.

Reciprocal regulation of protein kinase C isoforms results in differential cellular responsiveness.

Immunological homeostasis is often maintained by counteractive functions of two different cell types or two different receptors signaling through different intermediates in the same cell. One of these signaling intermediates is protein kinase C (PKC). Ten differentially regulated PKC isoforms are integral to receptor-triggered responses in different cells. So far, eight PKC isoforms are reported to be expressed in macrophages. Whether a single receptor differentially uses PKC isoforms to regulate counteractive effector functions has never been addressed. As CD40 is the only receptor characterized to trigger counteractive functions, we examined the relative role of PKC isoforms in the CD40-induced macrophage functions. We report that in BALB/c mouse macrophages, higher doses of CD40 stimulation induce optimum phosphorylation and translocation of PKCα, ßI, ßII, and ε whereas lower doses of CD40 stimulation activates PKCδ, ζ, and λ. Infection of macrophages with the protozoan parasite Leishmania major impairs PKCα, ßI, ßII, and ε isoforms but enhances PKCδ, ζ, and λ isoforms, suggesting a reciprocity among these PKC isoforms. Indeed, PKCα, ßI, ßII, and ε isoforms mediate CD40-induced p38MAPK phosphorylation, IL-12 expression, and Leishmania killing; PKCδ and ζ/λ mediate ERK1/2 phosphorylation, IL-10 production, and parasite growth. Treatment of the susceptible BALB/c mice with the lentivirally expressed PKCδ- or ζ-specific short hairpin RNA significantly reduces the infection and reinstates host-protective IFN-γ-dominated T cell response, defining the differential roles for PKC isoforms in immune homeostasis and novel PKC-targeted immunotherapeutic and parasite-derived immune evasion strategies.

Identification of novel inhibitors of dipeptidylcarboxypeptidase of Leishmania donovani via ligand-based virtual screening and biological evaluation.

Current treatment of leishmaniasis is based on chemotherapy, which relies on a handful of drugs with serious limitations, such as high cost, toxicity, and lack of efficacy in endemic regions. Therefore, development of new, effective, and affordable anti-leishmanial drugs is a global health priority. Dipeptidylcarboxypeptidase has been characterized and established as a drug target for antileishmanial drug discovery. We virtually screened a large chemical library of 15 452 compounds against a 3D model of dipeptidylcarboxypeptidase to identify novel inhibitors. The initial virtual screening using a ligand-based pharmacophore model identified 103 compounds. Forty-six compounds were shortlisted based on the docking scores and other scoring functions. Further, these compounds were subjected to biological assay, and four of them belonging to two chemical classes were identified as the lead compounds. Identification of these novel and chemically diverse inhibitors should provide leads to be optimized into candidates to treat these protozoan infections.