Intra-Lake Arcellinida (Testate Lobose Amoebae) Response to Winter De-icing Contamination in an Eastern Canada Road-Side "Salt Belt" Lake.

Salt contamination of lakes, due to the application of winter de-icing salts on roads, presents a significant environmental challenge in the "salt belt" region of eastern North America. The research reported here presents the first deployment of a previously published proxy tool based on Arcellinida (testate lobose amoebae) for monitoring road salt contamination. The research was conducted at Silver Lake in Eastern Ontario, a 4-km-long lake with the heavily traveled Trans-Canada Highway (HWY 7) transiting the entire southern shore. The lake showed elevated conductivity (297-310 µS/cm) and sub-brackish conditions (0.14-0.15 ppt). Sodium levels were also elevated near the roadside (median Na = 1020 ppm). Cluster analysis and nonmetric multidimensional scaling results revealed four distinct Arcellinida assemblages: "Stressed Cool Water Assemblage (SCWA)," "Deep Cold Water Assemblage (DCWA)," both from below the 8-m thermocline, and the shallower water "Shallow Water Assemblage 1 (SWA-1)" and "Shallow Water Assemblage 2 (SWA-2)". Redundancy analysis showed a minor response of Arcellinida to road salt contamination in shallower areas of the lake, with confounding variables significantly impacting assemblage distribution, particularly beneath the thermocline (e.g., water temperature, water depth, sediment runoff from catchment [Ti], sediment geochemistry [Ca, S]). The results of this study indicate that the trophic structure of the lake has to date only been modestly impacted by the cumulative nature of road salt contamination. Nonetheless, the Silver Lake results should be considered of concern and warrant continued arcellinidan biomonitoring to gauge the ongoing and long-term effects of road salt on its ecosystem.

Behind the Organic Veil: Assessing the Impact of Chemical Deflocculation on Organic Content Reduction and Lacustrine Arcellinida (Testate Amoebae) Analysis.

Arcellinida (testate lobose amoebae) are widely used as bio-indicators of lacustrine environmental change. Too much obscuring organic material in a gridded wet Petri dish preparation makes it difficult to observe all specimens present and slows quantification as the organic material has to be carefully worked through with a dissection probe. Chemical deflocculation using soda ash (Na2CO3·H2O), potassium hydroxide (KOH), or sodium hexametaphosphate ((NaPO3)6) has previously been shown to disaggregate and reduce organic content in lake sediments, but to date, no attempt has been made to comparatively evaluate the efficiency of these deflocculants in disaggregating organic content and their impact on Arcellinida analysis in lacustrine sediments. Here, we assess the effectiveness of soda ash, potassium hydroxide, and sodium hexametaphosphate treatments on removing organic content and the impact of those digestions on Arcellinida preservation in 126 sample aliquots subdivided from three sediment samples (YK-20, YK-25, and YK-57) collected from three lakes near Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Canada. Following treatment, cluster analysis and Bray-Curtis dissimilarity matrix (BCDM) were utilized to determine whether treatments resulted in dissolution-driven changes in Arcellinida assemblage composition. Observed Arcellinida tests in aliquots increased drastically after treatment of organic-rich samples (47.5-452.7% in organic-rich aliquots and by 14.8% in aliquots with less organic matter). The BCDM results revealed that treatment with 5% KOH resulted in the highest reduction in observed organic content without significantly affecting Arcellinida assemblage structure, while soda ash and sodium hexametaphosphate treatments resulted in marginal organic matter reduction and caused severe damage to the arcellinidan tests.

Elucidating Waterborne Pathogen Presence and Aiding Source Apportionment in an Impaired Stream.

Fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) are the basis for water quality regulations and are considered proxies for waterborne pathogens when conducting human health risk assessments. The direct detection of pathogens in water and simultaneous identification of the source of fecal contamination are possible with microarrays, circumventing the drawbacks to FIB approaches. A multigene target microarray was used to assess the prevalence of waterborne pathogens in a fecally impaired mixed-use watershed. The results indicate that fecal coliforms have improved substantially in the watershed since its listing as a 303(d) impaired stream in 2002 and are now near United States recreational water criterion standards. However, waterborne pathogens are still prevalent in the watershed, as viruses (bocavirus, hepatitis E and A viruses, norovirus, and enterovirus G), bacteria (Campylobacter spp., Clostridium spp., enterohemorrhagic and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, uropathogenic E. coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Helicobacter spp., Salmonella spp., and Vibrio spp.), and eukaryotes (Acanthamoeba spp., Entamoeba histolytica, and Naegleria fowleri) were detected. A comparison of the stream microbial ecology with that of sewage, cattle, and swine fecal samples revealed that human sources of fecal contamination dominate in the watershed. The methodology presented is applicable to a wide range of impaired streams for the identification of human health risk due to waterborne pathogens and for the identification of areas for remediation efforts.IMPORTANCE The direct detection of waterborne pathogens in water overcomes many of the limitations of the fecal indicator paradigm. Furthermore, the identification of the source of fecal impairment aids in identifying areas for remediation efforts. Multitarget gene microarrays are shown to simultaneously identify waterborne pathogens and aid in determining the sources of impairment, enabling further focused investigations. This study shows the use of this methodology in a historically impaired watershed in which total maximum daily load reductions have been successfully implemented to reduce risk. The results suggest that while the fecal indicators have been reduced more than 96% and are nearing recreational water criterion levels, pathogens are still detectable in the watershed. Microbial source tracking results show that additional remediation efforts are needed to reduce the impact of human sewage in the watershed.

Molecular identification of waterborne free living amoebae (Acanthamoeba, Naegleria and Vermamoeba) isolated from municipal drinking water and environmental sources, Semnan province, north half of Iran.

The present study tested 80 samples of municipal, geothermal and recreational water samples for the occurrence of waterborne free living amoebae (FLA) including Acanthamoeba, Balamuthia mandrillaris, Vahlkampfiids and Vermamoeba in Semnan province, North half of Iran. Four sets of primers including JDP1,2 primers, ITS1,2 primers (Vahlkampfiids), 16S rRNABal primers (Balamuthia mandrillaris) and NA1,2 primers (Vermamoeba) were used to confirm the morphological identification. From the 80 water samples tested in the present study, 16 (20%) were positive for the outgrowth of free living amoebae based on the morphological page key. Out of the 34 municipal water samples, 7 (20.6%) were positive for outgrowth of Free living amoeba, belonging to Vermamoeba, Naegleria and Acanthamoeba using molecular tools. Three out of the six investigated hot springs were also contaminated with Naegleria spp. Sequencing of the ITS1,2 region of the Vahlkampfiid isolates revealed the highest homology with N. gruberi (2 isolates), N. australiensis (1 isolate) and N. pagei (3 isolates). This is the first report of N. gruberi in the country. Using morphological and molecular analysis, Balamuthia mandrillaris was undetected in all the water samples. The present study further confirmed the occurrence of potentially pathogenic waterborne free living amoebae in habitats with high human activity. It is of utmost importance that more studies are conducted to evaluate the niches of B. mandrillaris and N. fowleri in Iran and worldwide. Such investigations regarding the relevance of FLA as a hazard to humans, should be brought to the notice of the health authorities.

Copromyxa laresi n. sp. (Amoebozoa: Tubulinea) and Transfer of Cashia limacoides (Page, 1967) to Copromyxa Zopf, 1885.

Five amoeboid organisms of different origin (isolated from fish organs, soil and digestive tract of earthworm) that shared light microscopical and ultrastructural features including type and arrangement of mitochondrial cristae were subjected to phylogenetic analyses based on sequences of SSU rDNA and protein coding genes (actin, cytochrome oxidase I, and eukaryotic elongation factor 2). The reconstruction of multigene phylogeny of the strains studied (i) revealed that they belong to the same single-genus Copromyxa clade; (ii) strongly supported position of Copromyxa cantabrigiensis (syn. Hartmannella cantabrigiensis) within the genus; (iii) together with comparisons of light and electron microscopy data justified reclassification of Cashia limacoides (syn. Vexillifera expectata) to Copromyxa limacoides n. comb., and (iv) justified description of a new species, Copromyxa laresi n. sp.

Nebela jiuhuensis nov. sp. (Amoebozoa; Arcellinida; Hyalospheniidae): A New Member of the Nebela saccifera - equicalceus - ansata Group Described from Sphagnum Peatlands in South-Central China.

Hyalospheniids are among the most common and conspicuous testate amoebae in high-latitude peatlands and forest humus. These testate amoebae were widely studied as bioindicators and are increasingly used as models in microbial biogeography. However, data on their diversity and ecology are still very unevenly distributed geographically: notably, data are lacking for low-latitude peatlands. We describe here a new species, Nebela jiuhuensis, from peatlands near the Middle Yangtze River reach of south-central China with characteristic morphology. The test (shell) has hollow horn-like lateral extensions also found in N. saccifera, N. equicalceus (=N. hippocrepis), and N. ansata, three large species restricted mostly to Sphagnum peatlands of Eastern North America. Mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase (COI) data confirm that N. jiuhuensis is closely related to the morphologically very similar North American species N. saccifera and more distantly to N. ansata within the N. penardiana group. These species are all found in wet mosses growing in poor fens. Earlier reports of morphologically similar specimens found in South Korea peatlands suggest that N. jiuhuensis may be distributed in comparable peatlands in Eastern Asia (China and Korea). The discovery of such a conspicuous new species in Chinese peatlands suggests that many new testate amoebae species are yet to be discovered, including potential regional endemics. Furthermore, human activities (e.g., drainage, agriculture, and pollution) have reduced the known habitat of N. jiuhuensis, which can thus be considered as locally endangered. We, therefore, suggest that this very conspicuous micro-organism with a probably limited geographical distribution and specific habitat requirement should be considered as a flagship species for microbial biogeography as well as local environmental conservation and management.

Monitoring of Waterborne Parasites in Two Drinking Water Treatment Plants: A Study in Sarawak, Malaysia.

The occurrence of waterborne parasites coupled with water parameters at various processing sites of two drinking water treatment plants (A and B) and seven distribution system (DS) sites in Sarawak, Malaysia were studied. Ten liters of water underwent immunomagnetic separation (IMS) technique to detect the presence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium (oo)cysts. The remaining supernatant was used to detect other parasites whilst 50 mL of water sample was each used in the detection of free-living amoebae and fecal coliforms. Sampled water was positive for Giardia (32.9%; 28/85), Cryptosporidium (18.8%; 16/85) followed by Spirometra ova-like (25.9%; 22/85), Blastocystis-like (25.9%; 22/85), nematode larvae-like (8.2%; 7/85) and Taenia ova-like (1.2%; 1/85). Meanwhile, 90.2% (55/61) samples were positive for Acanthamoeba and Naegleria via cultivation and of these, 11 isolates were confirmed as Acanthamoeba genotype T3 (5/7) and T4 (2/7) followed by Naegleria sp. (4/11), Naegleria italica (2/11), Naegleria australiensis (1/11), Naegleria angularis (1/11) and Vahlkampfia sp. (3/11). Cryptosporidium, Acanthamoeba and Naegleria were also detected in one of the seven tested DS sites. Only Giardia and Cryptosporidium showed significant correlations with fluoride and fecal coliforms. These results describe the occurrence of waterborne parasites that will assist key stakeholders in mitigating contamination at the specific sites.

Risk Assessment for the Spread of Serratia marcescens Within Dental-Unit Waterline Systems Using Vermamoeba vermiformis.

Vermamoeba vermiformis is associated with the biofilm ecology of dental-unit waterlines (DUWLs). This study investigated whether V. vermiformis is able to act as a vector for potentially pathogenic bacteria and so aid their dispersal within DUWL systems. Clinical dental water was initially examined for Legionella species by inoculating it onto Legionella selective-medium plates. The molecular identity/profile of the glassy colonies obtained indicated none of these isolates were Legionella species. During this work bacterial colonies were identified as a non-pigmented Serratia marcescens. As the water was from a clinical DUWL which had been treated with Alpron™, this prompted the question as to whether S. marcescens had developed resistance to the biocide. Exposure to Alpron™ indicated that this dental biocide was effective, under laboratory conditions, against S. marcescens at up to 1 × 10(8) colony forming units/millilitre (cfu/ml). V. vermiformis was cultured for 8 weeks on cells of S. marcescens and Escherichia coli. Subsequent electron microscopy showed that V. vermiformis grew equally well on S. marcescens and E. coli (P = 0.0001). Failure to detect the presence of S. marcescens within the encysted amoebae suggests that V. vermiformis is unlikely to act as a vector supporting the growth of this newly isolated, nosocomial bacterium.

Impact of drinking water conditions and copper materials on downstream biofilm microbial communities and Legionella pneumophila colonization.

AIMS: This study examined the impact of pipe materials and introduced Legionella pneumophila on downstream Leg. pneumophila colonization and microbial community structures under conditions of low flow and low chlorine residual. METHODS AND RESULTS: CDC biofilm(™) reactors containing either unplasticized polyvinylchloride (uPVC) or copper (Cu) coupons were used to develop mature biofilms on Norprene(™) tubing effluent lines to simulate possible in-premise biofilm conditions. The microbial communities were characterized through 16S and 18S rRNA gene clone libraries and Leg. pneumophila colonization was determined via specific qPCR assays. The Cu significantly decreased downstream microbial diversity, approximately halved bacterial and eukaryotic abundance, with some groups only detected in uPVC-reactor tubing biofilms. However, some probable amoeba-resisting bacteria (ARB) like Mycobacterium spp. and Rhodobacteraceae were significantly more abundant in the Cu than uPVC-reactor tubing biofilms. In particular, Leg. pneumophila only persisted (postinoculation) within the Cu-reactor tubing biofilms, and the controlled low chlorine residue and water flow conditions led to a general high abundance of possible free-living protozoa in all tubing biofilms. The higher relative abundance of ARB-like sequences from Cu-coupons vs uPVC may have been promoted by amoebal selection and subsequent ARB protection from Cu inhibitory effects. CONCLUSIONS: Copper pipe and low flow conditions had significant impact on downstream biofilm microbial structures (on plastic pipe) and the ability for Leg. pneumophila colonization post an introduction event. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This is the first report that compares the effects of copper and uPVC materials on downstream biofilm communities grown on a third (Norprene(™)) surface material. The downstream biofilms contained a high abundance of free-living amoebae and ARB, which may have been driven by a lack of residual disinfectant and periodic stagnant conditions. Given the prevalence of Cu-piping in buildings, there may be increased risk from drinking water exposures to ARB following growth on pipe/fixture biofilms within premise drinking water systems.

Differential Legionella spp. survival between intracellular and extracellular forms in thermal spring environments.

Legionella are commonly found in natural and man-made aquatic environments and are able to inhabit various species of protozoa. The relationship between the occurrence of Legionella spp. within protozoa and human legionellosis has been demonstrated; however, the proportions of intracellular and extracellular Legionella spp. in the aquatic environment were rarely reported. In this study, we developed a new method to differentiate intracellular and extracellular Legionella spp. in the aquatic environment. Water samples from three thermal spring recreational areas in southeastern Taiwan were collected and analyzed. For each water sample, concurrent measurements were performed for Legionella spp. and their free-living amoebae hosts. The overall detection rate was 32 % (16/50) for intracellular Legionella spp. and 12 % (6/50) for extracellular Legionella spp. The most prevalent host of Legionella spp. was Hartmannella vermiformis. The identified Legionella spp. differed substantially between intracellular and extracellular forms. The results showed that it may be necessary to differentiate intracellular and extracellular forms of Legionella spp.

Size structure of testate amoebae (Arcellinida and Euglyphida) in different habitats from a lake in the upper Paraná River floodplain.

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between the size structure of testate amoebae in distinct habitats, i.e. plankton, aquatic macrophytes and aquatic sediment. The samples were taken from a floodplain lake of the upper Paraná River. The assumptions we strived to scrutinize were that (i) larger mean sizes of testate amoebae would be recorded in the sediment of the lake; and (ii) temporally, smaller individuals would be registered during the high water period in all habitats. The sampling was done monthly, from April 2007 to March 2008, in triplicates for each habitat. Testate amoebae were represented by individuals sized between 20 and 400 µm. The smaller individuals predominated in plankton samples, while in the aquatic sediment the larger ones were chiefly represented. These differences were probably associated with metabolic activities, i.e. the energy needs of these unicellular organisms, in each habitat. Two-way ANOVA yielded significant differences between hydrological periods. During the high water period, the increase in rainfall and consequently in water flow, decreased the stability of the system and increased turbulence and water column circulation. Therefore, environmental stability seems to be one of the main factors driving the temporal variation in the size structure of these specific organisms.

Occurrence of the lobose testate amoeba Pseudonebela africana (Amoebozoa, Arcellinida) in the Brazilian "cerrado".

Flagship species are defined as microbial eukaryote species with characteristic morphologies and restricted geographic distributions. These are proposed as ideal systems to elucidate patterns of geographical distribution in microbial eukaryotes. Here we present new records of the putative flagship species Pseudonebela africana, a lobose testate amoeba (Arcellinida) characterized by a cross or clover-shaped aperture and geographic distribution previously believed to be restricted to Africa. We have sampled P. africana from 5 separate ponds in the Central and Southwest Brazillian "cerrado", and characterized individuals both by light and electron microscopy. We provide a brief description to facilitate further studies on this poorly understood taxon, and show that light microscopy is sufficient for identification, an important feature for ecological and biogeographical studies.

"Slime molds" among the Tubulinea (Amoebozoa): molecular systematics and taxonomy of Copromyxa.

Copromyxa protea is a dung-inhabiting amoeboid organism that aggregates to form simple macroscopic fruiting structures, sorocarps, which are composed of a single cell type. In a recent effort to find the phylogenetic positions of the less well-known sorocarpic protists considered to be "cellular slime molds," or aggregatively fruiting amoebae, we isolated C. protea and sequenced the nuclear-encoded small subunit ribosomal RNA gene from four samples collected from cattle farms in the central USA. Phylogenetic analyses of these data place C. protea in the eukaryotic supergroup Amoebozoa together with the Tubulinea, in which there has been no previous report of an aggregative fruiting habit. This is consistent with the morphology of the trophozoites. In fact, Copromyxa protea is found to be very closely related to Hartmannella cantabrigiensis and to a since lost amoeba isolate, Hartmannella sp. 4/3Da/10. This new grouping of Copromyxa+H. cantabrigiensis is sister to Glaeseria, which together are sister to the Amoebidae (Amoeba+Chaos). We suggest renaming, H. cantabrigiensis as C. cantabrigiensis and designate isolate 4/3Da/10 as C. protea. Future work is needed to see if these newly assigned members of the genus Copromyxa also show evidence of an ability to fruit.

Biodiversity of testate amoebae (Arcellinida and Euglyphida) in different habitats of a lake in the Upper Paraná River floodplain.

This study aimed to investigate the testate amoebae (Arcellinida and Eugliphida) species diversity in plankton, macrophytes and aquatic sediment samples from a shallow lake of the Upper Paraná River floodplain. Samples were carried out from April 2007 to March 2008. We recorded 89 taxa, belonging to 10 families. Eighty-two taxa were found in the aquatic sediment, 71 in the macrophytes and 53 in the plankton. Highest values of alpha diversity were observed in the aquatic sediment. Although the plankton had the highest number of accidental species, accessory and constant species were also observed in this habitat. Most of the species classified as constant for the plankton belonged to the genus Arcella. Most of the constant species in the macrophytes and aquatic sediment belonged to the genus Difflugia. This study supports the idea that the presence of these protists in the plankton should not be attributed only to stochastic processes because (i) the species diversity recorded in this habitat was remarkably high in relation to the total biodiversity of the lake, and (ii) we also recorded frequent and constant species in the plankton.

Description and phylogenetic relationships of Spumochlamys perforata n. sp. and Spumochlamys bryora n. sp. (Amoebozoa, Arcellinida).

Spumochlamys perforata n. sp. and Spumochlamys bryora n. sp. were isolated and described from dry epiphytic moss. The morphology and ultrastructure of both species clearly demonstrate that they belong to the genus Spumochlamys (family Microchlamyiidae). They differ from its only described member, Spumochlamys iliensis (as well as from species of Microchlamys), in the relief of the dorsal surface of the test, revealed by scanning electron microscopy, which can represent a good characteristic for species identification. They also differ in the structure of the dorsal part of the test wall (especially S. perforata). Small subunit ribosomal DNA-based molecular phylogenetic analyses show that Spumochlamys is a deeply branching lineage of the Arcellinida, without any close affinities. Actin gene sequence analysis places this genus within the Tubulinea, close to two other arcellinid lineages but without forming a monophyletic group with them. These data together strongly suggest that the lack of resolution in the arcellinid molecular phylogenies is due to serious undersampling of taxa, a limited number of sequence data, and high divergence rates in most of the species.

Rhizamoeba neglecta n. sp. (Amoebozoa, Tubulinea) from the bottom sediments of freshwater Lake Leshevoe (Valamo Island, North-Western Russia), with notes on the phylogeny of the order Leptomyxida.

A new species of Leptomyxida, named Rhizamoeba neglecta was found during studies of the amoeba fauna of the inner Lake Leshevoe located at Valamo archipelago (The Lake Ladoga, North-Western Russia). Light-microscopical and ultrastructural studies indicated that it represents a new species of Leptomyxida. The partial 18S rDNA sequence of this amoeba is very similar to that of Leptomyxa reticulata.. These organisms, however, are very different in LM morphology and biology. Organisms assigned to the genus Rhizamoeba do not form a single clade in the 18S rDNA tree. This may indicate that the genus is an artificial grouping or that a number of studied strains were misidentified. The phylogeny and the systematics of leptomyxids require further investigation.

Screening Swiss water bodies for potentially pathogenic free-living amoebae.

Free-ling amoebae (FLA) including Acanthamoeba spp., Naegleria fowleri, Balamuthia mandrillaris and Sappinia pedata, can cause opportunistic infections leading to severe brain pathologies. Human infections with pathogenic FLA have been increasingly documented in many countries. In Switzerland, thus far, the occurrence and distribution of potentially pathogenic FLA has not been investigated. Swiss water biotopes, including swimming pools, lakes, rivers and ponds, have now been screened for the presence of FLA, and assessment of their pathogenicity potential for a mammalian host has been undertaken. Thus, a total of 17 isolates were recovered by in vitro cultivation from these different aquatic sources. Characterization by sequence analysis of Acanthamoeba spp.-specific and 'FLA-specific PCR products amplified from 18s rDNA based on morphological traits, thermotolerance, and cytotoxicity towards murine fibroblasts yielded the following findings: Echinamoeba cf. exundans (3 isolates), Hartmannella spp. (3), Vannella spp. (4), Protacanthamoebica cf. bohemica (1), Acanthamoeba cf. castellanii (1) and Naegleria spp. (5). B. mandrillaris and N. fowleri did not range amongst these isolates. None of the isolates exhibited pronounced cytotoxicity and all failed to grow at 42 degrees C; therefore, they do not present any potential for CNS pathogenicity for humans.

Balamuthia mandrillaris, agent of amebic encephalitis: detection of serum antibodies and antigenic similarity of isolates by enzyme immunoassay.

We report the development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for detecting antibodies to Balamuthia mandrillaris, a free-living ameba that is an etiologic agent of granulomatous amebic encephalitis (GAE). As part of the California Encephalitis Project (CEP), we have tested serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples from a subgroup of 130 hospitalized encephalitis patients (out of approximately 430 samples) over a 16-month period. Case criteria were based on clinical, laboratory, and occupational/recreational histories. All serum samples initially underwent screening by immunofluorescent antibody (IFA) staining with results ranging from no detectable ameba antibodies to titers of 1:256. In addition to the 130 samples tested prospectively, sera and/or CSF from 11 previously confirmed cases of balamuthiasis, six healthy individuals, and earlier CEP submissions with high IFA antibody titers were also tested retrospectively. Among the 130 samples, two cases of balamuthiasis were identified by ELISA and confirmed by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The availability of sera from human and animal cases and from varied geographic areas allowed comparisons of serologic similarities of the different Balamuthia strains and human sera. All sera, whether from human or other mammals, reacted with all strains of Balamuthia, as they did with Balamuthia amebae from different geographic areas. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay results were consistent with the IFA results. Differences between readings were likely due to cross-reactivity between Balamuthia antigens and unidentified antibodies in serum.

Development of a diagnostic PCR to detect Neoparamoeba perurans, agent of amoebic gill disease.

The recent description of Neoparamoeba perurans as an aetiological agent of amoebic gill disease (AGD) advanced our understanding of the condition and has forced a re-evaluation of methods used for the diagnosis of AGD. Currently, there are no tools available that are both specific for N. perurans and suitable for a routine diagnostic procedure. Therefore, in this study we describe an assay to detect N. perurans. The assay, which utilizes PCR to amplify the N. perurans 18S rRNA gene, was shown to be specific and highly sensitive. Neoparamoeba perurans was detected in both gill samples and primary isolates of non-cultured gill-derived amoebae obtained during necropsy or biopsy from AGD-affected Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. The PCR-based assay provides a simple, flexible tool that will be a useful addition to the diagnostic repertoire for AGD. It may also be used for the genotypic screening of trophozoites during culture and could facilitate further epidemiological and ecological studies of AGD.

Demonstration of Balamuthia and Acanthamoeba mitochondrial DNA in sectioned archival brain and other tissues by the polymerase chain reaction.

Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE) is a usually fatal disease caused by the free-living amoebae Balamuthia mandrillaris and Acanthamoeba spp. The intent of this study was to determine if the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) could be used retrospectively to detect amoeba mitochondrial 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid gene deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in confirmed archival tissue sections from GAE cases stored in our laboratories for 1 to 34 years. The DNA was extracted from deparaffinized sections, and appropriate primer sets for each of the two amoebae were used for DNA detection. Indirect immunofluorescent staining (IIF) of tissue sections was used as the standard for identification of amoebae against which the PCR results were compared. Sixty slides from a total of 56 cases were processed by PCR for amoeba 16S DNA. In 28 (47%) slides, there was agreement between the IIF and PCR results. In 41 of the slides (52%), no DNA was detected after PCR. In one slide (1%), the PCR and IIF results did not agree. While PCR supported IIF findings in about half of the slides, there are significant limitations in amoeba DNA identifications in formalin-fixed brain tissues. Degradation of amoeba DNA because of formalin fixation was probably a factor in limiting valid results.