CRISPR/Cas9-mediated generic protein tagging in mammalian cells.

Systematic protein localization and protein-protein interaction studies to characterize specific protein functions are most effectively performed using tag-based assays. Ideally, protein tags are introduced into a gene of interest by homologous recombination to ensure expression from endogenous control elements. However, inefficient homologous recombination makes this approach difficult in mammalian cells. Although gene targeting efficiency by homologous recombination increased dramatically with the development of designer endonuclease systems such as CRISPR/Cas9 capable of inducing DNA double-strand breaks with unprecedented accuracy, the strategies still require synthesis or cloning of homology templates for every single gene. Recent developments have shown that endogenous protein tagging can be achieved efficiently in a homology independent manner. Hence, combinations between CRISPR/Cas9 and generic tag-donor plasmids have been used successfully for targeted gene modifications in mammalian cells. Here, we developed a tool kit comprising a CRISPR/Cas9 expression vector with several EGFP encoding plasmids that should enable tagging of almost every protein expressed in mammalian cells. By performing protein-protein interaction and subcellular localization studies of mTORC1 signal transduction pathway-related proteins expressed in HEK293T cells, we show that tagged proteins faithfully reflect the behavior of their native counterparts under physiological conditions.

CRISPR/Cas9-Based Gene Dropout Screens.

Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9-based technology enables efficient and precise perturbations of target genomic sites. Combining the endonuclease Cas9 and a pooled guide RNA library allows for systematic screenings of genes associated with a growth disadvantage or lethal phenotype under various conditions in organisms and tissues. Here, we describe a complete protocol for scalable CRISPR/Cas9-based dropout screening for essential genes from focused genomic regions to whole genomes.

Gene Disruption Using CRISPR-Cas9 Technology.

The emergence of the clustered, regularly interspaced, short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) technology provides tools for researchers to modify genomes in a specific and efficient manner. The Type II CRISPR-Cas9 system enables gene editing by directed DNA cleavage followed by either non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) or homology-directed repair (HDR). Here, we described the use of the Type II CRISPR-Cas9 system in detail from designing the guides to analyzing the desired gene disruption events.

Methods for Assessing DNA Repair and Repeat Expansion in Huntington's Disease.

Huntington's disease (HD) is caused by a CAG repeat expansion in the HTT gene. Repeat length can change over time, both in individual cells and between generations, and longer repeats may drive pathology. Cellular DNA repair systems have long been implicated in CAG repeat instability but recent genetic evidence from humans linking DNA repair variants to HD onset and progression has reignited interest in this area. The DNA damage response plays an essential role in maintaining genome stability, but may also license repeat expansions in the context of HD. In this chapter we summarize the methods developed to assay CAG repeat expansion/contraction in vitro and in cells, and review the DNA repair genes tested in mouse models of HD. While none of these systems is currently ideal, new technologies, such as long-read DNA sequencing, should improve the sensitivity of assays to assess the effects of DNA repair pathways in HD. Improved assays will be essential precursors to high-throughput testing of small molecules that can alter specific steps in DNA repair pathways and perhaps ameliorate expansion or enhance contraction of the HTT CAG repeat.

High-Content Analysis of CRISPR-Cas9 Gene-Edited Human Embryonic Stem Cells.

CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing of human cells and tissues holds much promise to advance medicine and biology, but standard editing methods require weeks to months of reagent preparation and selection where much or all of the initial edited samples are destroyed during analysis. ArrayEdit, a simple approach utilizing surface-modified multiwell plates containing one-pot transcribed single-guide RNAs, separates thousands of edited cell populations for automated, live, high-content imaging and analysis. The approach lowers the time and cost of gene editing and produces edited human embryonic stem cells at high efficiencies. Edited genes can be expressed in both pluripotent stem cells and differentiated cells. This preclinical platform adds important capabilities to observe editing and selection in situ within complex structures generated by human cells, ultimately enabling optical and other molecular perturbations in the editing workflow that could refine the specificity and versatility of gene editing.

CRISPR/Cas-mediated genome editing in the rat via direct injection of one-cell embryos.

Conventional embryonic stem cell (ESC)-based gene targeting, zinc-finger nuclease (ZFN) and transcription activator-like effector nuclease (TALEN) technologies are powerful strategies for the generation of genetically modified animals. Recently, the CRISPR/Cas system has emerged as an efficient and convenient alternative to these approaches. We have used the CRISPR/Cas system to generate rat strains that carry mutations in multiple genes through direct injection of RNAs into one-cell embryos, demonstrating the high efficiency of Cas9-mediated gene editing in rats for simultaneous generation of compound gene mutant models. Here we describe a stepwise procedure for the generation of knockout and knock-in rats. This protocol provides guidelines for the selection of genomic targets, synthesis of guide RNAs, design and construction of homologous recombination (HR) template vectors, embryo microinjection, and detection of mutations and insertions in founders or their progeny. The procedure from target design to identification of founders can take as little as 6 weeks, of which <10 d is actual hands-on working time.

Development of new potato virus X-based vectors for gene over-expression and gene silencing assay.

Multiple plant viruses, including potato virus X (PVX), have been modified as vectors for expressing heterologous genes or silencing endogenous genes in plants. PVX-based vectors facilitate the functional analysis of genes in plant. However, they can only express one protein in a time. In this paper we report the construction of new vectors based on a 35S promoter-driven PVX infectious clone, pCaPVX100. Vector pCaPVX440 contains two additional subgenomic promoters and can be utilized to express two foreign genes at the same time. Plasmid pCaPVX760 is a CP minus vector and can be used to express foreign proteins through the gene substitution strategy. In addition, plasmid pCaPVX100 was engineered into a gene silencing vector (pCaPVX440-LIC) by introducing a ligation independent cloning (LIC) site into the vector. These results indicate that the newly developed PVX vectors are competent for multiple research purposes.

Dual amplified and ultrasensitive electrochemical detection of mutant DNA Biomarkers based on nuclease-assisted target recycling and rolling circle amplifications.

Based on nicking endonuclease (NEase)-assisted target recycling and rolling circle amplification (RCA) for in situ generation of numerous G-quadruplex/hemin complexes, we developed a new, dual amplified and ultrasensitive electrochemical biosensor for mutant human p53 gene. The target mutant DNA hybridizes with the loop portion of a dithiol-modified hairpin probe (HP) self-assembled on a gold sensing electrode and forms nicking site for the NEase, which cleaves the HP and releases the target DNA. The released target DNA again hybridizes with the intact HP and initiates the DNA recycling process with the assistance of the NEase, leading to the cleavage of a large number of the HPs and the generation of numerous primers for RCA. With rationally designed, G-quadruplex complementary sequence-encoded RCA circular template, subsequent RCA results in the formation of long DNA sequences with massive tandem-repeat G-quadruplex sequences, which further associate with hemin and generate significantly amplified current response for highly sensitive DNA detection down to 0.25 fM. The developed method also exhibits high specificity for the target DNA against single-base mismatched sequence. With the ultrahigh sensitivity feature induced by the dual signal amplification, the proposed method can thus offer new opportunities for the detection of trace amounts of DNA.

Detection of attractors of large Boolean networks via exhaustive enumeration of appropriate subspaces of the state space.

BACKGROUND: Boolean models are increasingly used to study biological signaling networks. In a Boolean network, nodes represent biological entities such as genes, proteins or protein complexes, and edges indicate activating or inhibiting influences of one node towards another. Depending on the input of activators or inhibitors, Boolean networks categorize nodes as either active or inactive. The formalism is appealing because for many biological relationships, we lack quantitative information about binding constants or kinetic parameters and can only rely on a qualitative description of the type "A activates (or inhibits) B". A central aim of Boolean network analysis is the determination of attractors (steady states and/or cycles). This problem is known to be computationally complex, its most important parameter being the number of network nodes. Various algorithms tackle it with considerable success. In this paper we present an algorithm, which extends the size of analyzable networks thanks to simple and intuitive arguments. RESULTS: We present lnet, a software package which, in fully asynchronous updating mode and without any network reduction, detects the fixed states of Boolean networks with up to 150 nodes and a good part of any present cycles for networks with up to half the above number of nodes. The algorithm goes through a complete enumeration of the states of appropriately selected subspaces of the entire network state space. The size of these relevant subspaces is small compared to the full network state space, allowing the analysis of large networks. The subspaces scanned for the analyses of cycles are larger, reducing the size of accessible networks. Importantly, inherent in cycle detection is a classification scheme based on the number of non-frozen nodes of the cycle member states, with cycles characterized by fewer non-frozen nodes being easier to detect. It is further argued that these detectable cycles are also the biologically more important ones. Furthermore, lnet also provides standard Boolean analysis features such as node loop detection. CONCLUSIONS: lnet is a software package that facilitates the analysis of large Boolean networks. Its intuitive approach helps to better understand the network in question.

Gene targeting and site-specific recombination in mouse ES cells.

This is a protocol that describes the generation of targeted embryonic stem (ES) cell clones. The targeted cells can be used for generating a mouse either by injection into blastocysts or by morula aggregation. Alternatively, the ES cells can be used for targeting the second allele and thus creating an in-vitro knockout model. In the latter case, the phenotype of the mutation can be analyzed either in the undifferentiated state or after differentiation of the cells into the three germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm). This protocol describes only a part of the pipeline for generating a conditional knockout mouse. The whole procedure includes (1) design and generation of the targeting construct, (2) generation of targeted ES clones, and (3) generation of the knockout mouse. Detailed protocols for preparing DNA, culturing ES cells, and screening the transfected ES clones for correct targeted events by long-range PCR or Southern blotting can be found elsewhere (see Isolation of Genomic DNA from Mammalian Cells and Analysis of DNA by Southern Blotting). Here, we describe only the protocol used for transfecting the targeting construct into ES cells and for removing antibiotic selection cassettes or other DNA fragments flanked by site-specific recombination target sites using transient transfection of recombinase expression vectors. In addition, we describe a short protocol for screening the clones that underwent complete recombination. A protocol to prepare DNA from 96-, 48-, and 24-well plates is also described.

[Construction of BV-T7 hybrid expression system based on baculovirus to express target gene eGFP in mammalian and chicken cells].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether the recombinant baculovirus BV-T7 hybrid expression system can be effectively transduced into chicken cells in vitro, and whether it can express the foreign genes (eGFP). METHOD: We established a hybrid baculovirus-T7 RNA polymerase system for transient expression in mammalian cells and chicken cells. Two recombinant baculoviruses were constructed, one carrying cDNA of bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase, with a nuclear localization signal, under the control of a mammalian promoter and the other expressing eGFP gene under the control of T7 promoter. The constructed recombinant baculoviruses co-infected mammalian oligodendrocyte cells, as well as chicken embryo fibroblasts cells and chicken embryo skeletal muscle cells. RESULTS: The eGFP activity was detected in mammalian cell lines and embryo fibroblasts cells and chicken embryo skeletal muscle cells. The recombinant baculovirus transduction efficiency of oligodendrocyte cells was 59.5%, and in CEF cells and myoblast cells the transduction efficiencies were 23.2% and 33.1%. CONCLUSION: BV-T7 hybrid expression could be expressed T7 RNAP in mammalian cells and avian cells.

Targeted entry via somatostatin receptors using a novel modified retrovirus glycoprotein that delivers genes at levels comparable to those of wild-type viral glycoproteins.

Here we report a novel viral glycoprotein created by replacing a natural receptor-binding sequence of the ecotropic Moloney murine leukemia virus envelope glycoprotein with the peptide ligand somatostatin. This new chimeric glycoprotein, which has been named the Sst receptor binding site (Sst-RBS), gives targeted transduction based on three criteria: (i) a gain of the use of a new entry receptor not used by any known virus; (ii) targeted entry at levels comparable to gene delivery by wild-type ecotropic Moloney murine leukemia virus and vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) G glycoproteins; and (iii) a loss of the use of the natural ecotropic virus receptor. Retroviral vectors coated with Sst-RBS gained the ability to bind and transduce human 293 cells expressing somatostatin receptors. Their infection was specific to target somatostatin receptors, since a synthetic somatostatin peptide inhibited infection in a dose-dependent manner and the ability to transduce mouse cells bearing the natural ecotropic receptor was effectively lost. Importantly, vectors coated with the Sst-RBS glycoprotein gave targeted entry of up to 1 × 10(6) transducing U/ml, a level comparable to that seen with infection of vectors coated with the parental wild-type ecotropic Moloney murine leukemia virus glycoprotein through the ecotropic receptor and approaching that of infection of VSV G-coated vectors through the VSV receptor. To our knowledge, this is the first example of a glycoprotein that gives targeted entry of retroviral vectors at levels comparable to the natural capacity of viral envelope glycoproteins.

[Progress in zinc finger nuclease engineering for targeted genome modification].

Zinc finger nuclease (ZFN) is an artificially engineered hybrid protein that contains a zinc finger protein (ZFP) domain and a Fok I endonuclease cleavage domain. It has recently emerged as a powerful molecular tool for targeted genome modifications. ZFNs recognize and bind to specific DNA sequences to generate a double-strand break (DSB) by its nuclease activity. Based on this finding, various genetic methods, including gene targeting (gene disruption), gene addition, gene correction etc., are being designed to manipulate the genomes of different species at specific loci. One particular advantage of this new technique is its broad applications, which can be employed to generate desirable inheritable mutations both at the organismal level and at the cellular level. Here, we review the recent progress and prospects of ZFN technology. This article focused on the mechanism of how it works, currently available target assessment, ZFP library construction and screening methods, target modification strategies, as well as a collection of specie and genes that have been successfully modified by ZFN. This review will provide a useful reference for researchers who are interested in applying this new technique in their studies.

Nanotechnology: emerging tool for diagnostics and therapeutics.

Nanotechnology is an emerging technology which is an amalgamation of different aspects of science and technology that includes disciplines such as electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, biology, physics, chemistry, and material science. It has potential in the fields of information and communication technology, biotechnology, and medicinal technology. It involves manipulating the dimensions of nanoparticles at an atomic scale to make use of its physical and chemical properties. All these properties are responsible for the wide application of nanoparticles in the field of human health care. Promising new technologies based on nanotechnology are being utilized to improve diverse aspects of medical treatments like diagnostics, imaging, and gene and drug delivery. This review summarizes the most promising nanomaterials and their application in human health.

Site-specific recombinases as tools for heterologous gene integration.

Site-specific recombinases are the enzymes that catalyze site-specific recombination between two specific DNA sequences to mediate DNA integration, excision, resolution, or inversion and that play a pivotal role in the life cycles of many microorganisms including bacteria and bacteriophages. These enzymes are classified as tyrosine-type or serine-type recombinases based on whether a tyrosine or serine residue mediates catalysis. All known tyrosine-type recombinases catalyze the formation of a Holliday junction intermediate, whereas the catalytic mechanism of all known serine-type recombinases includes the 180° rotation and rejoining of cleaved substrate DNAs. Both recombinase families are further subdivided into two families; the tyrosine-type recombinases are subdivided by the recombination directionality, and the serine-type recombinases are subdivided by the protein size. Over more than two decades, many different site-specific recombinases have been applied to in vivo genome engineering, and some of them have been used successfully to mediate integration, deletion, or inversion in a wide variety of heterologous genomes, including those from bacteria to higher eukaryotes. Here, we review the recombination mechanisms of the best characterized recombinases in each site-specific recombinase family and recent advances in the application of these recombinases to genomic manipulation, especially manipulations involving site-specific gene integration into heterologous genomes.

Efficient markerless gene replacement in Corynebacterium glutamicum using a new temperature-sensitive plasmid.

Random chemical mutation of a Corynebacterium glutamicum-Escherichia coli shuttle vector derived from plasmid pCGR2 was done using hydroxylamine. It brought about amino acid substitutions G109D and E180K within the replicase superfamily domain of the plasmid's RepA protein and rendered the plasmid highly unstable, especially at higher incubation temperatures. Colony formation of C. glutamicum was consequently completely inhibited at 37°C but not at 25°C. G109 is a semi-conserved residue mutation which resulted in major temperature sensitivity. E180 on the other hand is not conserved even among RepA proteins of closely related C. glutamicum pCG1 family plasmids and its independent mutation caused relatively moderate plasmid instability. Nonetheless, simultaneous mutation of both residues was required to achieve temperature-sensitive colony formation. This new pCGR2-derived temperature-sensitive plasmid enabled highly efficient chromosomal integration in a variety of C. glutamicum wild-type strains, proving its usefulness in gene disruption studies. Based on this, an efficient markerless gene replacement system was demonstrated using a selection system incorporating the temperature-sensitive replicon and Bacillus subtilis sacB selection marker, a system hitherto not used in this bacterium. Single-crossover integrants were accurately selected by temperature-dependent manner and 93% of the colonies obtained by the subsequent sucrose selection were successful double-crossover recombinants.

[The mechanism and application of zinc finger nucleases].

Due to specific recognization of DNA sequences and designability, zinc finger nucleases (ZFN) has been used in knock in and knock out genes. Because of high ratio of homologous recombination of DSB-GT induces by ZFN, ZFN technology has been considered as the most powerful tool for gene modification. It has been successfully used at cell or embryo levels in plants and animals. Under the rapid development of high affinity zinc finger protein (ZFP), this technique will be applied to genetic engineering and breeding extensively in the future. This review discussed the DNA recognization mechanism and double strand break gene targeting (DSB-GT) of zinc finger nucleases (ZFN). Some application examples of ZFN were summarized.

Modified gateway system for double shRNA expression and Cre/lox based gene expression.

BACKGROUND: The growing need for functional studies of genes has set the stage for the development of versatile tools for genetic manipulations. RESULTS: Aiming to provide tools for high throughput analysis of gene functions, we have developed a modified short hairpin RNA (shRNA) and gene expression system based on Gateway Technology. The system contains a series of entry and destination vectors that enables easy transfer of shRNA or cDNA into lentiviral expression systems with a variety of selection or marker genes (i.e. puromycin, hygromycin, green fluorescent protein-EGFP, yellow fluorescent protein-YFP and red fluorescent protein-dsRed2). Our shRNA entry vector pENTR.hU6.hH1 containing two tandem human shRNA expression promoters, H1 and U6, was capable of co-expressing two shRNA sequences simultaneously. The entry vector for gene overexpression, pENTR.CMV.ON was constructed to contain CMV promoter with a multiple cloning site flanked by loxP sites allowing for subsequent Cre/lox recombination. Both shRNA and cDNA expression vectors also contained attL sites necessary for recombination with attR sites in our destination expression vectors. As proof of principle we demonstrate the functionality and efficiency of this system by testing expression of several cDNA and shRNA sequences in a number of cell lines. CONCLUSION: Our system is a valuable addition to already existing library of Gateway based vectors and can be an essential tool for many aspects of gene functional studies.

Peptide and glycopeptide dendrimers and analogous dendrimeric structures and their biomedical applications.

The size of information that can be stored in nucleic acids, proteins, and carbohydrates was calculated. The number of hexamers for peptides is 64,000,000 (20(6)) and seems to be impressive in comparison with 4,096 (4(6)) hexanucleotides, but the number of isomers of hexasaccharides is 1.44 × 10(15). Carbohydrates are therefore the best high-density coding system. This language has been named glycocode resp. sugar code. In comparison with peptide dendrimers, the amount of information carried by glycopeptide dendrimers or glycodendrimers is therefore much higher. This is reflected by the variability of structures and functions (activities). This review is about the broad area of peptide and glycopeptide dendrimers. The dendrimeric state and physicochemical properties and general consequences are described, together with a cluster effect. The impact of cluster effect to biological, chemical, and physical properties is discussed. Synthesis of dendrimers by convergent and divergent approaches, "Lego" chemistry, ligation strategies, and click chemistry is given with many examples. Purification and characterization of dendrimers by chromatographic methods, electromigration methods, and mass spectrometry are briefly mentioned. Different types of dendrimers with cyclic core, i.e. RAFTs, TASPs and analogous cyclic structures, carbopeptides, carboproteins, octopus glycosides, inositol-based dendrimers, cyclodextrins, calix[4]arenes, resorcarenes, cavitands, and porphyrins are given. Dendrimers can be used for creation of libraries, catalysts, and solubilizing agents. Biocompatibility and toxicity of dendrimers is discussed, as well as their applications in nanoscience, nanotechnology, drug delivery, and gene delivery. Carbohydrate interactions of glycopeptide dendrimers (bacteria, viruses, and cancer) are described. Examples of dendrimers as anti-prion agents are given. Dendrimers represent a fast developing area which partly overlaps with nanoparticles and nanotechnologies.