Heterologous arenavirus vector prime-boost overrules self-tolerance for efficient tumor-specific CD8 T cell attack.

Therapeutic vaccination regimens inducing clinically effective tumor-specific CD8+ T lymphocyte (CTL) responses are an unmet medical need. We engineer two distantly related arenaviruses, Pichinde virus and lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, for therapeutic cancer vaccination. In mice, life-replicating vector formats of these two viruses delivering a self-antigen in a heterologous prime-boost regimen induce tumor-specific CTL responses up to 50% of the circulating CD8 T cell pool. This CTL attack eliminates established solid tumors in a significant proportion of animals, accompanied by protection against tumor rechallenge. The magnitude of CTL responses is alarmin driven and requires combining two genealogically distantly related arenaviruses. Vector-neutralizing antibodies do not inhibit booster immunizations by the same vector or by closely related vectors. Rather, CTL immunodominance hierarchies favor vector backbone-targeted responses at the expense of self-reactive CTLs. These findings establish an arenavirus-based immunotherapy regimen that allows reshuffling of immunodominance hierarchies and breaking self-directed tolerance for efficient tumor control.

Novel antibodies that selectively block mouse IL-12 enable the re-evaluation of the role of IL-12 in immune protection and pathology.

The dimeric cytokine IL-12 is important in the control of various infections but also contributes to the pathology of certain diseases making it a potential target for therapy. However, its specific inhibition with antibodies is complicated by the fact that its two subunits are present in other cytokines: p40 in IL-23 and p35 in IL-35. This has led to erroneous conclusions like the alleged implication of IL-12 in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Here, we report the development of a mouse anti-mouse IL-12 vaccine and the production of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that do not react with p40 or p35 (in IL-35) but specifically recognize and functionally inhibit the IL-12 heterodimer. Using one of these mAbs, MM12A1.6, that strongly inhibited IFN-γ production and LPS-induced septic shock after viral infection, we demonstrate the critical role played by IL-12 in the rejection of male skin graft by female C57BL/6 syngeneic recipients and in the clearance of an immunogenic mastocytoma tumor variant by DBA/2 mice, but not in a parent to F1 immune aggression model nor in MOG-induced EAE, which was clearly prevented by anti-p40 mAb C17.8. Given this selective inhibition of IL-12, these mAbs provide new options for reassessing IL-12 function in vivo.

Role of Zinc Sulphate in Immune Regulation in Artemisia annua Pollen-challenged P815 Mastocytoma Cells.

Objective This study aimed to investigate the role of zinc sulphate in immune regulation in Artemisia annua pollen-challenged P815 mastocytoma cells. Methods P815 mastocytoma cells were treated with various concentrations of zinc sulphate and Artemisia annua pollen. Cell proliferation was measured using the Cell Counting Kit-8. The amount of ST2 and p38 in the cells were measured using Western blotting. The level of interleukins (IL)-33 in the supernatant was determined using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The levels of IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, interferon-γ, and tumor necrosis factor were measured using the cytometric bead array. Results Artemisia annua pollen at a concentration >0.001 µg/mL induced allergic response in the P815 mastocytoma cells. Expressions of IL-33, IL-4, ST2, and p38 increased along with higher concentrations of Artemisia annua pollen. Zinc sulphate of 50-200 µmol/L promoted the proliferation of P815 mastocytoma cells. Zinc sulphate attenuated the upregulation of IL-33, IL-4, ST2, and p38 caused by Artemisia annua pollen. Conclusion Zinc sulphate can promote the proliferation of P815 mastocytoma cells. It can also attenuate allergic response in the P815 mastocytoma cells induced by Artemisia annua pollen, which might provide a new treatment method for allergic diseases.

Immunophenotype of pediatric-onset mastocytosis does not correlate with clinical course.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric mastocytosis differs from adult mastocytosis in its presentation and clinical course. However, the data regarding the immunophenotypic characterization of mast cells in children are limited. Our objective was to evaluate the immunophenotype of mast cells in pediatric mastocytosis and correlate it with the clinical course. METHODS: Biopsy specimens of children with cutaneous mastocytosis were retrieved from the institutions of pathology and were stained for CD25, CD2, and CD30. The percentage of mast cells and the staining intensity were correlated with the clinical data. RESULTS: Twenty-five biopsy specimens were included in the study. Patients' average age was 15.4 at presentation and 37.5 months at biopsy performance. Clinical presentations included maculopapular cutaneous mastocytosis in 79% and mastocytoma in 21% of cases. CD25, CD2, and CD30 were positive in 60%, 44%, and 84% of the biopsy specimens, respectively. The staining score was significantly higher for CD30 as compared to those for CD25 and CD2 (P = 0.02). No correlation was found between the immunophenotype and the clinical form or course of disease. CONCLUSIONS: Our results confirm that CD30 is a sensitive marker for pediatric-onset mastocytosis. Nevertheless, its expression does not correlate with clinical subtype or clinical course. The sensitivity of CD25 is higher than that of CD2 in skin lesions.

Antigen-adjuvant effects of icariin in enhancing tumor-specific immunity in mastocytoma-bearing DBA/2J mice.

Cancer immunotherapy has attracted much attention in recent years because of the ability of immune system to identify tumor cells and limit their growth. Icariin (ICA) is a natural flavonoid glucoside isolated from Epimedium plants and has shown a variety of pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory effects, immunological regulation and anticancer potency. Furthermore, it has immunoadjuvant effects on enhancing Th1-immune response, suggesting that ICA may serve as an adjuvant for cancer immunotherapy. In this study, we used P815 mouse mastocytoma tumor model and immunized them with P815AB peptide and/or ICA. Our results demonstrated that ICA could increase the cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) response for P815AB peptide on the tumor-bearing DBA/2J mice. In addition, the percentage of CD4+CD8+/CD3+CD69+/CD69+NKG2D+ positive cells in splenocytes of the tumor-bearing mice all significantly increased after combined immunization with ICA and P815AB peptide. This illustrated that ICA could enhance the immunogenicity of P815AB and improve the ability of T cells and CTLs in recognizing the tumor cells. Moreover, ICA improved the function of peritoneal macrophages with effects of inhibition on tumor growth. Besides, we discussed the possible mechanism of ICA to enhance body immunity by detecting the expression level of MHC-I and related genes in B16-F10 and RMA/S cells. The results suggested that ICA has the potential to up-regulate LMP/TAP related molecules and induce the expression of MHC-I, which increase the immune surveillance and keep cancer in remission. In conclusion, ICA showed an anti-tumor effect both in vitro and in vivo and may be an effective antigen adjuvant for cancer treatment by enhancing tumor-specific immunity.

Distinct patterns of cytolytic T-cell activation by different tumour cells revealed by Ca2+ signalling and granule mobilization.

Cancer-germline genes in both humans and mice have been shown to encode antigens susceptible to targeting by cytotoxic CD8 T effector cells (CTL). We analysed the ability of CTL to kill different tumour cell lines expressing the same cancer-germline gene P1A (Trap1a). We previously demonstrated that CTL expressing a T-cell receptor specific for the P1A35-43 peptide associated with H-2Ld , although able to induce regression of P1A-expressing P815 mastocytoma cells, were much less effective against P1A-expressing melanoma cells. Here, we analysed parameters of the in vitro interaction between P1A-specific CTL and mastocytoma or melanoma cells expressing similar levels of the P1A gene and of surface H-2Ld . The mastocytoma cells were more sensitive to cytolysis than the melanoma cells in vitro. Analysis by video-microscopy of early events required for target cell killing showed that similar patterns of increase in cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+ ]i) were induced by both types of P1A-expressing tumour cells. However, the use of CTL expressing a fluorescent granzyme B (GZMB-Tom) showed a delay in the migration of cytotoxic granules to the tumour interaction site, as well as a partially deficient GZMB-Tom exocytosis in response to the melanoma cells. Among surface molecules possibly affecting tumour-CTL interactions, the mastocytoma cells were found to express intercellular adhesion molecule-1, the ligand for LFA-1, which was not detected on the melanoma cells.

Inhibition of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase by stereoisomers of 1-methyl tryptophan in an experimental graft-versus-tumor model.

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) is a rate-limiting enzyme in tryptophan catabolism that plays an important role in the induction of immune tolerance. Its role in graft-versus-tumor effect after allogeneic stem cell transplantation (allo-SCT) remains unclear. Using a murine graft-versus-tumor model of reduced-intensity allo-HSCT followed by donor leukocyte infusion (DLI), we examined the role of IDO inhibition. Two stereoisomers of 1-methyl tryptophan (1-MT), a small-molecule inhibitor of IDO, reduced the growth of inoculated tumor in the mice that received DLI and had higher expression of IDO1 and IFNγ. However, L-1MT, but not D-1MT, mitigated tumor growth in mice that did not receive DLI and did not express IDO1 and IFNγ. Accordingly, both stereoisomers reduced plasma kynurenine concentrations early after DLI and enhanced in vitro cytotoxic lymphocyte function after allogeneic mixed lymphocyte reaction. Furthermore, L-1MT was more efficient in causing direct cytotoxic effects than D-1MT. Our results suggest that IDO inhibition can benefit anti-tumor therapy in the setting of reduced-intensity allo-SCT using DLI.

Accumulation of memory precursor CD8 T cells in regressing tumors following combination therapy with vaccine and anti-PD-1 antibody.

Immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment blunts vaccine-induced immune effectors. PD-1/B7-H1 is an important inhibitory axis in the tumor microenvironment. Our goal in this study was to determine the effect of blocking this inhibitory axis during and following vaccination against breast cancer. We observed that using anti-PD-1 antibody and a multipeptide vaccine (consisting of immunogenic peptides derived from breast cancer antigens, neu, legumain, and ß-catenin) as a combination therapy regimen for the treatment of breast cancer-bearing mice prolonged the vaccine-induced progression-free survival period. This prolonged survival was associated with increase in number of Tc1 and Tc2 CD8 T cells with memory precursor phenotype, CD27+IL-7RhiT-betlo, and decrease in number of PD-1+ dendritic cells (DC) in regressing tumors and enhanced antigen reactivity of tumor-infiltrating CD8 T cells. It was also observed that blockade of PD-1 on tumor DCs enhanced IL-7R expression on CD8 T cells. Taken together, our results suggest that PD-1 blockade enhances breast cancer vaccine efficacy by altering both CD8 T cell and DC components of the tumor microenvironment. Given the recent success of anti-PD-1 monotherapy, our results are encouraging for developing combination therapies for the treatment of patients with cancer in which anti-PD-1 monotherapy alone may be ineffective (i.e., PD-L1-negative tumors).

Intramuscular electroporation of a P1A-encoding plasmid vaccine delays P815 mastocytoma growth.

This study aimed to construct DNA vaccines encoding the mouse P1A tumor antigen and to generate a protective immune response against the P815 mastocytoma, as a model for vaccines against human MAGE-type tumor antigens. DNA vaccines were constructed and delivered to mice by intramuscular electroporation before tumor challenge. Immunization with a plasmid coding for the full-length P1A significantly delayed tumor growth and mice survived at least 10 days longer than untreated controls. 10% of the mice completely rejected the P815 tumors while 50% of them showed a regression phase followed by tumor regrowth. Mice immunized by electroporation of a P1A(35-43) minigene-encoding plasmid failed to reject tumor and even delay tumor growth. The P1A(35-43)-encoding plasmid was modified and helper epitope sequences were inserted. However, these modified plasmids were not able to improve the response against P815 mastocytoma. Consistent with these results, a 12-fold higher CTL activity was observed when the plasmid coding for full-length P1A was delivered as compared to the plasmid encoding the P1A(35-43) epitope. Our results demonstrated that electroporation is an efficient method to deliver DNA vaccines against P815 and suggested the superiority of full-length as compared to minigene constructs for DNA vaccines.

Cyclophosphamide treatment induces rejection of established P815 mastocytoma by enhancing CD4 priming and intratumoral infiltration of P1E/H-2K(d) -specific CD8+ T cells.

There is increasing evidence that the effect of chemotherapy on tumor growth is not cell autonomous but relies on the immune system. The objective of this study was therefore to decipher the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the role of innate and adaptive immunity in chemotherapy-induced tumor rejection. Treatment of DBA/2 mice bearing P815 mastocytoma with cyclophosphamide induced rejection and long-term protection in a CD4- and CD8-dependent manner. A population of inflammatory-type dendritic cells was dramatically expanded in the lymph nodes of mice that rejected the tumor and correlated with CD4-dependent infiltration, in tumor bed, of tumor-specific CD8+ T lymphocytes. Our data point to a major role of CD4+ T cells in inducing chemokine expression in the tumor, provoking migration of tumor-specific CXCR3+ CD8+ T lymphocytes. Importantly, the analysis of CD8+ T cells specific to P1A/H-2L(d) and P1E/H-2K(d) revealed that cyclophosphamide altered the P815-specific CD8 T repertoire by amplifying the response specific to the mutated P1E antigen.

Photodynamic therapy of murine mastocytoma induces specific immune responses against the cancer/testis antigen P1A.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) involves the intravenous administration of photosensitizers followed by illumination of the tumor with visible light, leading to local production of reactive oxygen species that cause vascular shutdown and tumor cell death. Antitumor immunity is stimulated after PDT because of the acute inflammatory response that involves activation of the innate immune system, leading to stimulation of adaptive immunity. We carried out PDT using benzoporphyrin derivative and 690-nm light after 15 minutes, in DBA/2 mice bearing either the mastocytoma, P815, which expresses the naturally occurring cancer/testis antigen P1A, or the corresponding tumor P1.204 that lacks P1A expression. Tumor cures, significantly higher survival, and rejection of tumor rechallenge were obtained with P815, which were not seen with P1.204 or seen with P815 growing in nude mice. Both CD4 and CD8 T cells had higher levels of intracellular cytokines when isolated from mice receiving PDT of P815 tumors than P1.204 tumors and CD8 T cells from P815-cured mice recognized the peptide epitope of the P1A antigen (LPYLGWLVF) using pentamer staining. Taken together, these findings show that PDT can induce a potent antigen- and epitope-specific immune response against a naturally occurring mouse tumor antigen.

Interleukin-15 administration increases graft-versus-tumor activity in recipients of haploidentical hematopoietic SCT.

Utilizing a clinically relevant haploidentical (HI) murine transplant model, lethally irradiated B6D2F1 (H2K(b/d)) mice were transplanted with T cell-depleted (TCD) BM from B6CBAF1 (H2K(b/k)) mice. We found that administration of IL-15 significantly increases the numbers of CD8+ T and natural killer (NK) cells in spleen and BM after transplantion without GVHD. Graft-versus-tumor (GVT) potency of the graft was evaluated upon tumor challenge using P815 tumor cells (H2(d)). IL-15 administration without T-cell infusion did not result in any survival improvement. However, IL-15 in combination with very low-dose T-cell infusion (1 × 10(4)) significantly increased GVT activity and improved survival in recipients of HI hematopoietic SCT (HSCT). This effect was observed when IL-15 was given at a later time point, rather than immediately following transplantation. IL-15 administration also specifically increased slow-proliferative CD8+ T-cell proliferation and IFN-γ secretion in CD8+ T cells in recipients of CFSE (carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester)-labeled HI T-cell infusion, whereas there was no effect on CD4+ T-cell proliferation, suggesting the critical effect of IL-15 on CD8+ T-cell homeostasis in HI host. We conclude that IL-15 can be used for enhancing antileukemia effect of HI-HSCT, which requires presence of donor-derived T cells.

Antitumor T-cell responses contribute to the effects of dasatinib on c-KIT mutant murine mastocytoma and are potentiated by anti-OX40.

Targeted and immune-based therapies are thought to eradicate cancer cells by different mechanisms, and these approaches could possibly complement each other when used in combination. In this study, we report that the in vivo antitumor effects of the c-KIT inhibitor, dasatinib, on the c-KIT mutant P815 mastocytoma tumor were substantially dependent on T cell-mediated immunity. We found that dasatinib treatment significantly decreased levels of Tregs while specifically enhancing tumor antigen-specific T-cell responses. We sought to further enhance this therapy with the addition of anti-OX40 antibody, which is known to provide a potent costimulatory signal to T cells. The combination of dasatinib and anti-OX40 antibody resulted in substantially better therapeutic efficacy compared with either drug alone, and this was associated with enhanced accumulation of tumor antigen-specific T cells in the tumor microenvironment. Furthermore, the combination regimen inhibited the function of Tregs and also resulted in significantly up-regulated expression of the IFN-γ-induced chemokines CXCL9, 10, and 11 in the tumor microenvironment, which provides a feasible mechanism for the enhanced intratumoral CTL infiltration. These studies delineate a strategy by which targeted therapy and immunotherapy may be combined to achieve superior antitumor responses in cancer patients.

NI-1: a novel canine mastocytoma model for studying drug resistance and IgER-dependent mast cell activation.

BACKGROUND: Advanced mast cell (MC) disorders are characterized by uncontrolled growth of neoplastic MC in various organs, mediator-related symptoms, and a poor prognosis. Kit mutations supposedly contribute to abnormal growth and drug resistance in these patients. METHODS: We established a novel canine mastocytoma cell line, NI-1, from a patient suffering from MC leukemia. RESULTS: NI-1 cells were found to form mastocytoma lesions in NOD/SCID IL-2Rgamma(null) mice and to harbor several homozygous Kit mutations, including missense mutations at nucleotides 107(C→T) and 1187(A→G), a 12-bp duplication (nucleotide 1263), and a 12-bp deletion (nucleotide 1550). NI-1 cells expressed several MC differentiation antigens, including tryptase, Kit, and a functional IgE receptor. Compared to the C2 mastocytoma cell line harboring a Kit exon 11 mutation, NI-1 cells were found to be less responsive against the Kit tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) masitinib and imatinib, but were even more sensitive against proliferation-inhibitory effects of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) blocker RAD001 and PI3-kinase/mTOR blocker NVP-BEZ235. The Kit-targeting multikinase inhibitors PKC412 and dasatinib were also found to override TKI resistance in NI-1 cells, and produced growth inhibition with reasonable IC(50) values (<0.1 µM). CONCLUSION: NI-1 may serve as a useful tool to investigate IgE-dependent reactions and mechanisms of abnormal growth and drug resistance in neoplastic MC in advanced mastocytosis.

PI3Kγ controls leukocyte recruitment, tissue injury, and lethality in a model of graft-versus-host disease in mice.

PI(3)Kγ is thought to mediate leukocyte migration to injured tissues and may be important in the pathogenesis of various T-lymphocyte-dependent pathologies, including autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. The present study evaluated the relevance of PI(3)Kγ in donor cells for the pathogenesis of acute GVHD using a model of adoptive transfer of splenocytes from WT or PI(3)Kγ(-/-) C57BL/6J mice to B6D2F1 mice, and mice that received PI(3)Kγ(-/-) cells showed reduced clinical signs of disease, bacterial translocation, tissue injury, and lethality rates. This was associated with reduced production of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines (TNF-α, IFN-γ, CCL2, CCL3, and CCL5) and reduced infiltration of CD8(+), CD4(+), and CD11c(+) cells in the small intestine. Mechanistically, in addition to decreasing production of proinflammatory mediators, absence or pharmacological blockade of PI(3)Kγ was associated with decreased rolling and adhesion of leukocytes to the mesenteric microcirculation, as assessed by intravital microscopy. Despite decreased GVHD, there was maintained GVL activity when PI(3)Kγ(-/-) leukocytes were transferred into WT mice. In conclusion, PI(3)Kγ plays a critical role in GVHD by mediating leukocyte influx and activation in tissues. PI(3)Kγ inhibitors may be useful in the treatment of GVHD in patients undergoing BMT.

The protective effect of Schisandra lignans on stress-evoked hepatic metastases of P815 tumor cells in restraint mice.

AIM OF THE STUDY: The present study was conducted to investigate the effects of schisandra lignans extract (SLE) on stress-evoked hepatic metastases of mastocytoma P815 tumor cells, which was closely related with immune function. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) fingerprint of SLE was recorded and the percentage composition of schisandra lignans was determined as 82.63%. The contributions of the immunomodulatory properties of SLE to the protective effects on stress-induced hepatic metastases were studied. RESULTS: Our results found that restraint stress significantly promoted hepatic metastases of P815 tumor cells. However, oral administration of SLE (100 and 200mg/kg/d, 14d) significantly reduced the number of metastatic colonies in liver of restrained mice. SLE was further found to be significantly improving T lymphocyte proportions and increasing cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activity of immunized spleen cells in stressed mice. CONCLUSION: These results indicated that the protective effects of SLE on hepatic metastases were related to its alleviation of the adverse effects of stressors for bio-homeostasis and immunoprotection. The obtained data provided evidences to elucidate the traditional use of Fructus schisandrae as a tonic or sedative.

A galectin-3 ligand corrects the impaired function of human CD4 and CD8 tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes and favors tumor rejection in mice.

Human CD8(+) tumor-infiltrating T lymphocytes (TIL), in contrast with CD8(+) blood cells, show impaired IFN-γ secretion on ex vivo restimulation. We have attributed the impaired IFN-γ secretion to a decreased mobility of T-cell receptors on trapping in a lattice of glycoproteins clustered by extracellular galectin-3. Indeed, we have previously shown that treatment with N-acetyllactosamine, a galectin ligand, restored this secretion. We strengthened this hypothesis here by showing that CD8(+) TIL treated with an anti-galectin-3 antibody had an increased IFN-γ secretion. Moreover, we found that GCS-100, a polysaccharide in clinical development, detached galectin-3 from TIL and boosted cytotoxicity and secretion of different cytokines. Importantly, we observed that not only CD8(+) TIL but also CD4(+) TIL treated with GCS-100 secreted more IFN-γ on ex vivo restimulation. In tumor-bearing mice vaccinated with a tumor antigen, injections of GCS-100 led to tumor rejection in half of the mice, whereas all control mice died. In nonvaccinated mice, GCS-100 had no effect by itself. These results suggest that a combination of galectin-3 ligands and therapeutic vaccination may induce more tumor regressions in cancer patients than vaccination alone.

Tumor expression of CD200 inhibits IL-10 production by tumor-associated myeloid cells and prevents tumor immune evasion of CTL therapy.

CD200 is a cell-surface glycoprotein that functions through interaction with the CD200 receptor on myeloid lineage cells to regulate myeloid cell functions. Expression of CD200 has been implicated in multiple types of human cancer; however, the impact of tumor expression of CD200 on tumor immunity remains poorly understood. To evaluate this issue, we generated CD200-positive mouse plasmacytoma J558 and mastocytoma P815 cells. We found that established CD200-positive tumors were often completely rejected by adoptively transferred CTL without tumor recurrence; in contrast, CD200-negative tumors were initially rejected by adoptively transferred CTL but the majority of tumors recurred. Tumor expression of CD200 significantly inhibited suppressive activity and IL-10 production by tumor-associated myeloid cells (TAMC), and as a result, more CTL accumulated in the tumor and exhibited a greater capacity to produce IFN-gamma in CD200-positive tumors than in CD200-negative tumors. Neutralization of IL-10 significantly inhibited the suppressor activity of TAMC, and IL-10-deficiency allowed TAMC to kill cancer cells and their antigenic variants, which prevented tumor recurrence during CTL therapy. Thus, tumor expression of CD200 prevents tumor recurrence via inhibiting IL-10 production by TAMC.

Antigen-containing liposomes engrafted with flagellin-related peptides are effective vaccines that can induce potent antitumor immunity and immunotherapeutic effect.

The bacterial protein flagellin can trigger immune responses to infections by interacting with TLR5 on APCs, and Ag-flagellin fusion proteins can act as effective vaccines. We report that flagellin-related peptides containing a His-tag and sequence related to conserved N-motif (aa 85-111) of FliC flagellin, purportedly involved in the interaction of flagellin with TLR5, can be used to target delivery of liposomal Ag to APCs in vitro and in vivo. When engrafted onto liposomes, two flagellin-related peptides, denoted as 9Flg and 42Flg, promoted strong liposome binding to murine bone marrow-derived dendritic cells and CD11c(+) splenocytes, and cell binding correlated with expression of TLR5. Liposomes engrafted with 9Flg or 42Flg induced functional MyD88-dependent maturation of dendritic cells in vivo. The vaccination of mice with 9Flg liposomes containing OVA induced OVA-specific T cell priming, increased the number of Ag-responsive IFN-gamma-producing CD8(+) T cells, and increased Ag-specific IgG(1) and IgG(2b) in serum. Importantly, the vaccination of C57BL/6 mice with syngeneic B16-OVA-derived plasma membrane vesicles, engrafted with 9Flg or 42Flg, potently inhibited tumor growth/metastasis and induced complete tumor regression in the majority of mice challenged with the syngeneic B16-OVA melanoma, in the lung and s.c. tumor models. Strong antitumor responses were also seen in studies using the s.c. P815 tumor model. Therefore, vaccination with Ag-containing liposomes engrafted with 9Flg or 42Flg is a powerful strategy to exploit the innate and adaptive immune systems for the development of potent vaccines and cancer immunotherapies.