La leche por bandera en Granada. Evolución de las nodrizas desde la plaza de las pasiegas hasta el banco de leche del hospital materno infantil de Granada / Milk by flag in Granada. Evolution of the wet nurses from Pasiegas square to the Maternal Human Milk Bank of the Maternity Hospital in Granada

Cuando pensamos en nodriza, las dos palabras que se vienen a la cabeza son leche materna y altruismo. Dos vocablos que han estado ligados a ellas y que hoy, en el siglo XXI, aún continúan. Las primeras nodrizas hicieron de esto una forma de trabajo, no estaba remunerado y para la clase alta era una forma de librarse del cuidado y crianza de sus hijos. Para las nodrizas supuso la incorporación al mundo laboral [Fragmento de texto] (AU)

Hospital de Santa Isabel, a dos siglos de su fundación / Hospital of Santa Isabel, two centuries from its foundation

RESUMEN Con el crecimiento económico, cultural y demográfico de Matanzas, alcanzado entre 1818 y 1839, se sentaron las bases para el surgimiento de edificaciones imprescindibles como el antiguo Hospital de Santa Isabel. Esta institución fue inaugurada el 24 de julio de 1838. Durante la Colonia fue usado con fines civiles y militares, y entregado al gobierno norteamericano en agosto de 1899. En la Neocolonia brindó atención ininterrumpida a la población matancera. Fue remodelado en 1947, y en el período revolucionario se instituyó como hospital general, civil y docente hasta 2016, en que se reacondiciona para convertirse en el actual Hospital Provincial Docente Ginecobstétrico José Ramón López Tabrane. Es el hospital más longevo en funciones de la Isla (AU).

ABSTRACT With the economic, cultural and demographic growth of Matanzas, reached between 1818 and 1839, the grounds were laid for the emergence of indispensable buildings such as the old Hospital de Santa Isabel. This institution was inaugurated on July 24, 1838. During the colonial period it was used for civilian and military purposes, and handed over to the American government in August 1899. In the neocolonial period, it provided uninterrupted attention to the population of Matanzas. It was remodeled in 1947, and in the revolutionary period it was instituted as a general, civil and teaching hospital until 2016, in which it was re-conditioned to become the current Provincial Teaching Gyneco-obstetric Hospital José Ramón López Tabrane. It is the longest functioning hospital on the Island (AU).

Group of pregnant women and / or pregnant couples: a collective construction process (1996-2016) / Grupo de gestantes y / o casos embarazados: un procedimiento de construcción colectiva (1996-2016) / Grupo de gestantes e/ou casais grávidos: um processo de construção coletiva (1996-2016)

ABSTRACT Objective: To understand how the process of construction of the Group of Pregnant Women and/or Pregnant Couples of the Federal University of Santa Catarina from 1996 to 2016 was established. Method: Qualitative research of a social historical nature, involving nine health professionals who participated in the group of pregnant women and/or pregnant couples in this period. The date of collection took place between February and May 2017. Data analysis was guided by Orem's Self-Care Theory and Bardin's content analysis technique. Results: The process of construction of the group of pregnant women had strong influence from the public health policies of the University Hospital Maternity and its assistance of the time. Likewise, it was created based on the need for guidance to pregnant women and their companions to deal with the pregnancy-puerperal process with the perspective of a multidisciplinary and integral work, stimulating self-knowledge and self-care. Conclusion: The group emerged as an extension project and strengthened by public health policies, its scientific evidences and by the assistance philosophy of a maternity school. The group building process involved a set of actions, planning and execution of activities, building an educational space, free of charge, with an exchange of mutual experience and open to the community.

RESUMEN Objetivo: Comprender cómo se instituyó el proceso de construcción del Grupo de Gestantes y/ o Parejas embarazadas de la Universidad Federal de Santa Catarina en el período de 1996 a 2016. Método: Investigación cualitativa de naturaleza histórica social, involucrando a nueve profesionales de salud que participaron del grupo de gestantes y/o parejas embarazadas en este período. La recolección de datos ocurrió entre febrero y mayo de 2017. El análisis de datos fue guiado por la Teoría del Autocuidado de Orem y por la técnica de análisis de contenido de Bardin. Resultados: El proceso de construcción del grupo de gestantes tuvo fuerte influencia de las políticas públicas de salud de la época y de la maternidad del Hospital Universitario y su filosofía asistencial. Igualmente, fue creado a partir de la necesidad de orientación a las gestantes y sus acompañantes para lidiar con el proceso gravídico-puerperal con la perspectiva de un trabajo multidisciplinario e integral, estimulando el autoconocimiento y el auto-cuidado. Conclusión: El grupo surgió como un proyecto de extensión fortalecido por políticas públicas de salud, sus evidencias científicas y por la filosofía asistencial de una maternidad-escuela. El proceso de construcción del grupo involucró un conjunto de acciones, planificación y ejecución de actividades construyendo un espacio educativo, gratuito, con intercambio de experiencia mutua y abierta a la comunidad.

RESUMO Objetivo: Compreender como se instituiu o processo de construção do Grupo de Gestantes e/ou Casais Grávidos na Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, no período de 1996 a 2016. Método: Pesquisa qualitativa de natureza histórico-social, envolvendo nove profissionais de saúde que participaram do grupo de gestantes e/ou casais grávidos neste período. A coleta de dados aconteceu entre fevereiro e maio de 2017. A análise de dados foi guiada pela Teoria do Autocuidado de Orem e pela técnica de análise de conteúdo de Bardin. Resultados: O processo de construção do grupo de gestantes teve forte influência das políticas públicas de saúde da época, da maternidade do Hospital Universitário e sua filosofia assistencial. Igualmente, foi criado a partir da necessidade de orientação às gestantes e seus acompanhantes para lidar com o processo gravídico-puerperal, na perspectiva de um trabalho multidisciplinar e integral estimulando o autoconhecimento e o autocuidado. Conclusão: O grupo surgiu como projeto de extensão fortalecido por políticas públicas de saúde, suas evidências científicas e pela filosofia assistencial de uma maternidade-escola. O processo de construção do grupo envolveu um conjunto de ações, planejamento e execução de atividades construindo um espaço educativo, gratuito, com troca de experiência mútua e aberto a comunidade.

Experiencias de partos en casa y en el hospital de mujeres en los años 60 y 70 en España / Experiences of home births and hospital births of women in the 60s and 70s years in Spain / Experiências de partos domiciliares e partos hospitalares de mulheres nos anos 60 e 70 na Espanha

El objetivo principal del estudio es describir la experiencia de las mujeres que vivieron sus partos en el entorno hospitalario y en casa, en España entre los años 60-70. Para las mujeres, el parto es uno de los momentos más especiales de sus vidas, de ahí la importancia de conocer los sentimientos experimentados en este proceso, lo que nos ayudará a mejorar estos cuidados en futuras ocasiones y saber qué es lo que las mujeres realmente valoran a la hora de dar a luz. En este estudio también queda reflejado que los partos en casa, siempre que sean de bajo riesgo y atendidos por personal cualificado, son seguros y que hay que dejar a la mujer que, con toda la información, decida siempre donde quiere dar a luz. Se trata de una investigación cualitativa basada en la Teoría Fundamentada

The main purpose of the study is to describe the experience of women who lived their births in hospitals and at home in Spain between 60’s and 70’s years. For women, childbirth is one of the most special moments of their lives, hence the importance of knowing the feelings experienced in this process, which will help us to improve this care on future occasions and know what women really value when giving birth. This study also reflected that home births, provided they are low risk and serviced by qualified personnel, are safe and we should be left to the woman who, with all the information, decide always where she want to give birth. This is a qualitative research based on Grounded Theory

O principal objetivo do estudo é descrever a experiência de mulheres que viveram suas entregas em hospitais e em casa em Espanha entre 60-70. Para as mulheres, o parto é um dos momentos mais especiais de suas vidas, daí a importância de se conhecer os sentimentos vivenciados neste processo, o que vai nos ajudar a melhorar essa assistência em ocasiões futuras e saber o que as mulheres realmente valor quando o parto. Este estudo também refletiu que partos domiciliares, desde que sejam de baixo risco e servido por pessoal qualificado, são seguros e quais devem ser deixadas para a mulher que, com todas as informações, decidir sempre onde você deseja entregar. Esta é uma pesquisa qualitativa, baseada na Teoria Fundamentada

Por el bien de la nación: discursos científicos en favor de la medicalización del parto en el Perú, 1900-1940 / For the good of the nation: scientific discourses endorsing the medicalization of childbirth in Peru, 1900-1940

Resumen A lo largo del siglo XX se sucedió una serie de cambios en la forma de concebir el parto que pasó de ser un fenómeno reproductivo natural propio del ámbito doméstico y femenino a un asunto médico y profesional del ámbito institucional. A través de procedimientos como el uso de anestesia, la cesárea, el ultrasonido y otras intervenciones técnico-científicas se han generado rápidas e importantes mejoras y cambios para la salud y vida de la sociedad y las mujeres. La medicalización del parto a comienzos del siglo XX fue parte de un proceso más amplio de construcción del Estado e institucionalización del patriarcado común en la región.

Abstract Over the course of the twentieth century, a series of changes occurred in the understanding of childbirth, which went from being a natural reproductive phenomenon belonging to the female, domestic sphere to a professional medical matter handled in an institutional setting. Through procedures like the use of anesthesia, Cesarean sections, ultrasound and other techno-scientific interventions, rapid and significant improvements and changes took place in the health and life of society and of women. The medicalization of childbirth in the early twentieth century was part of a broader process of constructing the state and institutionalizing the patriarchy that was common throughout the region.

[Semmelweis - a contemplating human. Scientific historical lessons]. / Semmelweis ­ egy gondolkodó ember. Tudománytörténeti tanulságok.

In this article we examine why Semmelweis's seemingly simple, logical and practical discovery was categorically dismissed by the majority of his contemporaries, and why even many years after his death it was accepted with such reservation. We invoke wherever possible Semmelweis's own words citing from the series of articles appearing in the 'Orvosi Hetilap' [Hungarian Medical Weekly Journal] published in 1858 in Hungary, and also from the German language summary of the Journal published in 1860. We came to the conclusion that although Semmelweis did everything in his power to show the causal relationship between the development of puerperal fever (childbed fever) and some infectious substance on the hands of examining doctors and medical students, this was not convincing enough. The predominant theory at the time held that infection was caused by miasma transmitted in the air and therefore stubbornly precluded any notion of infectious matter physically transmitted on unclean hands. We also concluded that the causal sequence observed by Semmelweis was missing an essential empirical element: visual proof of the infectious agent he correctly postulated as physically transmitted. Visually demonstrating the presence of the infectious agent by means of a microscope would have made his case. This finally did occur but only two years after Semmelweis's death. Had the renowned Hungarian obstetrician realized the significance of taking advantage of the opportunity afforded by Dávid Gruby who was conducting experiments in the same town, a more convincing argument could have been made for his theory. In the 1840s and 1850s, Dávid Gruby was experimenting with various microscopic techniques and their application with success in Vienna before continuing his work in France. Gruby's work, especially that of microscopic observations of tissues, received international acceptance. Therefore, the involvement of Gruby and his work with microscopes to support Semmelweis's observations would most probably have forestalled much of the criticism and rejection his theory was initially awarded (among which perhaps Virchow's rejection proved the most damaging). Had Semmelweis utilized microscopic techniques, he would have been celebrated among the first to discover bacterial pathogens, contributing to the development of the currently predominant germ theory. Failure to utilize the microscope was the root cause leading to the tragedy of Semmelweis's rejection by the medical establishment of the time. Despite the increasing numbers of scientists utilizing the microscope at the University of Pest, offered to corroborate his daims with microscopic observations. Efforts have been made have since been to rehabilitate him as the key figure who not only discovered the method of transmission of infectious disease, but also implemented measures of prevention. Elevating him among the ranks of the ten greatest doctors who ever lived is certainly recognition due, but sadly denied to him in his lifetime. Orv Hetil. 2018; 159(26): 1055-1064.

For the good of the nation: scientific discourses endorsing the medicalization of childbirth in Peru, 1900-1940. / Por el bien de la nación: discursos científicos en favor de la medicalización del parto en el Perú, 1900-1940.

Over the course of the twentieth century, a series of changes occurred in the understanding of childbirth, which went from being a natural reproductive phenomenon belonging to the female, domestic sphere to a professional medical matter handled in an institutional setting. Through procedures like the use of anesthesia, Cesarean sections, ultrasound and other techno-scientific interventions, rapid and significant improvements and changes took place in the health and life of society and of women. The medicalization of childbirth in the early twentieth century was part of a broader process of constructing the state and institutionalizing the patriarchy that was common throughout the region.

A lo largo del siglo XX se sucedió una serie de cambios en la forma de concebir el parto que pasó de ser un fenómeno reproductivo natural propio del ámbito doméstico y femenino a un asunto médico y profesional del ámbito institucional. A través de procedimientos como el uso de anestesia, la cesárea, el ultrasonido y otras intervenciones técnico-científicas se han generado rápidas e importantes mejoras y cambios para la salud y vida de la sociedad y las mujeres. La medicalización del parto a comienzos del siglo XX fue parte de un proceso más amplio de construcción del Estado e institucionalización del patriarcado común en la región.

Premature Infant Care in the Early 20th Century.

The complex early history of infant incubators provides insight into challenges faced by medical professionals as they promoted care for premature infants in the early 20th century. Despite their absence from the narrative to date, nurses played vital roles in the development of neonatal care. Working in many different settings, from incubator-baby shows to the first hospital unit designed specifically for premature infants, nurses administered quality care and promoted advanced treatment for these newborns.

What happened at Vienna's Allgemeines Krankenhaus after Semmelweis's contract as Assistant in the First Maternity Division was terminated?

Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis is famous for dramatically reducing puerperal mortality while he was an Assistant in Vienna's largest hospital, the Allgemeines Krankenhaus; he did this, mainly, by requiring medical personnel to disinfect their hands by washing in a chlorine solution. But Semmelweis was soon removed from his post as assistant. The conventional view, which is suggested by Semmelweis's own account, is that his contemporaries were skeptical of his results, that he was marginalized and that once he was no longer directly responsible for caring for maternity patients, puerperal mortality returned to its former high levels. In fact, the situation appears to have been quite different. In this paper, we calculate and discuss the number of deaths at the Allgemeines maternity clinic after Semmelweis was removed from his position. As we will see, his successors maintained a relatively low mortality rate roughly consistent with the rate Semmelweis himself achieved. This suggests that the chlorine washings were probably still used conscientiously after he left and that the opposition he encountered had other sources than doubts about the effectiveness of the chlorine washings.

Orígenes de la pediatría institucional: el Hospital de Maternidad e Infancia de la Ciudad de México en el siglo XIX / Origins of institutional Pediatrics: Maternity and Childhood Hospital of Mexico City in the nineteenth century

Resumen: En junio de 1866, la emperatriz Carlota fundó la Casa de Maternidad en el Departamento de Partos Ocultos del Hospicio de Pobres. Con el restablecimiento de la república, se nombró al Dr. Ramón Pacheco director de la Casa de Maternidad. Poco después, en febrero de 1868, el Dr. Luis Fernández Gallardo estableció una sala de niños enfermos en el Hospital de San Andrés. Considerando que esta sala no reunía las condiciones necesarias, y ante la necesidad de un hospital infantil en la Ciudad de México, el Dr. Pacheco -con el apoyo de la Sra. Luciana Arrazola-, fusionó ambas instituciones el 2 de abril de 1869, fundando el Hospital de Maternidad e Infancia, la primera institución de México independiente para la atención de los problemas de salud infantiles. Desde su creación, el Dr. Eduardo Liceaga estuvo a cargo de la atención de los niños; con el respaldo de los presidentes Juárez, Lerdo de Tejada y Díaz, logró la consolidación del hospital en los aspectos asistenciales y docentes. Esta noble institución cerró sus puertas el 5 de febrero de 1905, al ser incorporada al Hospital General de México, después de 36 años de trabajo en favor de los de los niños mexicanos.

Abstract: In June of 1866, the empress Carlota founded the Maternity House in the Department of Secret Births at the Hospice of the Poor. Upon the reinstatement of a republican government, Dr. Ramon Pacheco was appointed director of the Maternity House. Shortly after, in February of 1868, Dr. Luis Fernandez Gallardo established a pavilion for sick children in the Hospital of San Andres. After realizing this pavilion didn't have the adequate conditions to operate properly, and in the need of a children's hospital in Mexico City, Dr. Pacheco merged both institutions in April 2, 1869 -with the help of Ms. Luciana Arrazola- and founded the Maternity and Childhood Hospital, the first institution for the care of ill children in the independent Mexico. Ever since it was founded, Dr. Eduardo Liceaga was in charge of the children's health. Later, with the help of the presidents Juarez, Lerdo de Tejada and Díaz, he was able to consolidate the hospital in academic and health services aspects. This noble institution closed its doors on February 5, 1905, upon its incorporation to the General Hospital of Mexico, after 36 years of working for the welfare of Mexican children.

[Origins of institutional Pediatrics: Maternity and Childhood Hospital of Mexico City in the nineteenth century]. / Orígenes de la pediatría institucional: el Hospital de Maternidad e Infancia de la Ciudad de México en el siglo XIX.

In June of 1866, the empress Carlota founded the Maternity House in the Department of Secret Births at the Hospice of the Poor. Upon the reinstatement of a republican government, Dr. Ramon Pacheco was appointed director of the Maternity House. Shortly after, in February of 1868, Dr. Luis Fernandez Gallardo established a pavilion for sick children in the Hospital of San Andres. After realizing this pavilion didn't have the adequate conditions to operate properly, and in the need of a children's hospital in Mexico City, Dr. Pacheco merged both institutions in April 2, 1869 -with the help of Ms. Luciana Arrazola- and founded the Maternity and Childhood Hospital, the first institution for the care of ill children in the independent Mexico. Ever since it was founded, Dr. Eduardo Liceaga was in charge of the children's health. Later, with the help of the presidents Juarez, Lerdo de Tejada and Díaz, he was able to consolidate the hospital in academic and health services aspects. This noble institution closed its doors on February 5, 1905, upon its incorporation to the General Hospital of Mexico, after 36 years of working for the welfare of Mexican children.

Doris Gordon: foundation of a legacy.

Doris Gordon Memorial Oration delivered to RANZCOG Annual Meeting, Wellington, 2 October, 2015.

Maternal mortality in New York--Looking back, looking forward.

New York City was ahead of its time in recognizing the issue of maternal death and the need for proper statistics. New York has also documented since the 1950s the enormous public health challenge of racial disparities in maternal mortality. This paper addresses the history of the first Safe Motherhood Initiative (SMI), a voluntary program in New York State to review reported cases of maternal deaths in hospitals. Review teams found that timely recognition and intervention in patients with serious morbidity could have prevented many of the deaths reviewed. Unfortunately the program was defunded by New York State. The paper then focuses on the revitalization of the SMI in 2013 to establish three safety bundles across the state to be used in the recognition and treatment of obstetric hemorrhage, severe hypertension in pregnancy, and the prevention of venous thromboembolism; and their introduction into 118 hospitals across the state. The paper concludes with a look to the future of the coordinated efforts needed by various organizations involved in women's healthcare in New York City and State to achieve the goal of a review of all maternal deaths in the state by a multidisciplinary team in a timely manner so that appropriate feedback to the clinical team can be given and care can be modified and improved as needed. It is the authors' opinion that we owe this type of review to the women of New York who entrust their care to us.

[Historical Review of Cesarean Section at King's Maternity Hospital and Midwifery School Zagreb 1908-1918].

This article presents a historical review of the performance of 23 cesarean sections at the King's Maternity Hospital and Midwifery School in Zagreb during the 1908-1918 period. Following prenatal screening by midwives and doctors in the hospital, deliveries in high risk pregnant women were performed at maternity hospitals, not at home. The most common indication for cesarean section was narrowed pelvis in 65.2% of women, while postpartum febrile condition was the most common complication in the puerperium. Maternal mortality due to sepsis after the procedure was 8.69% and overall perinatal mortality was 36.3% (stillbirths and early neonatal deaths).

La inauguración de la Casa de Salud de Santa Cristina de Madrid y su Escuela de Matronas / The opening of the Casa de Salud de Santa Cristina de Madrid and its school of midwifery

INTRODUCCIÓN: La Casa de Salud de Santa Cristina y Escuela Especial de Matronas fue una de las primeras escuelas para matronas fundadas en Madrid y en España. El edificio que la albergaba, un hospital destinado a cuidados obstétrico-ginecológicos, se inauguró en la capital de España en 1924, veinte años después de la colocación de la primera piedra. OBJETIVO: Analizar los orígenes de la institución, y explicar cómo fueron los primeros años de su funcionamiento y las repercusiones que esto tuvo sobre el colectivo de matronas de la época. MATERIAL Y MÉTODO: Investigación histórica que utiliza diversas fuentes primarias, como el informe de su primer director, José Gálvez Ginachero, y otros documentos procedentes de diferentes fuentes hemerográficas y documentos de archivo originales obtenidos en diversos archivos nacionales. RESULTADOS: En sus primeros años de funcionamiento, la Casa de Salud de Santa Cristina y Escuela Especial de Matronas (posteriormente, Escuela Oficial de Matronas) formó a estas profesionales con el objetivo de que fuesen fundamentalmente meros auxiliares para los médicos en el parto. Se han localizado en los archivos a 32 matronas que estudiaron en la institución desde su inauguración hasta el curso 1934/1935. Aunque el número inicial de alumnas fue escaso, con los años fue incrementándose progresivamente. CONCLUSIONES: La inauguración de la Casa de Salud de Santa Cristina mejoró la formación práctica de estas profesionales, pero también se convirtió en una herramienta para su control y su subordinación profesional a la figura del médico. También constituyó el inicio de la institucionalización del parto en Madrid

INTRODUCTION: The Casa de Salud de Santa Cristina and its school of midwifery was a women's hospital and one of the first schools for mid-wives on Madrid and also in Spain which opened in 1924, twenty years after its founding stone was laid. AIM: The purpose of this historiographic essay is to show the origins of this hospital, to explain the first years of its functioning and its consequences on midwifery care during childbirth. METHODOLOGY: Historical research which uses primary sources such as the report of José Gálvez Ginachero, the first director in the institution, and other files obtained from hemerographic sources of information and original archive documents from various national archives. RESULTS: The Casa de Salud de Santa Cristina and its school of midwifery formed midwives in order to be merely assistants for doctors. We have found 32 midwives formed in this institution during the first ten years of its functioning. In the beginning, only two or three midwives a year, but this number was progressively growing on. CONCLUSIONS: The opening of the Casa de Salud de Santa Cristina improved the practical training of midwives but also was a way for professional control and subordination of midwives in Spain. It also contributed to the institutionalization of childbirth in Madrid

Maternity records in Edinburgh and Aberdeen in 1936: a comparison.

Historians have long used maternity records to understand the evolution of maternity services. More recently, epidemiologists have become interested in obstetric hospital records as a source of data (e.g. birth weight, social class), to study the influence of early life on future health and disease: life course epidemiology. Edinburgh and Aberdeen are unusual in holding detailed records from several maternity institutions. The records of 1936 are of particular interest because all children born in this year and at school in Scotland at age 11 sat a cognitive ability test, the Scottish Mental Survey 1947. This study aims to describe the maternity services in Edinburgh and Aberdeen in 1936, between the First and Second World Wars. Understanding the richness of data in birth records, the manner in which they were recorded, and the context of the institutions in their community is essential for interpreting life course epidemiology studies.