Temporal evolution of the biological response to laser-induced refractive index change (LIRIC) in rabbit corneas.

Laser-induced refractive index change (LIRIC) is a new, non-incisional, non-ablative, femtosecond photo-modification technique being developed for vision correction in humans. Prior, exvivo studies showed intra-tissue refractive index change to induce minimal cell death, restricted to the laser focal zone in the corneal stroma, and with no observable damage to the epithelium or endothelium. Here, we used live rabbits to ascertain longer-term consequences of LIRIC in vivo. Specifically, we assessed cell death, fibrosis, corneal nerve distribution, endothelial cell density, and corneal structure for up to 3 months after LIRIC. A +2.5 D gradient-index LIRIC Fresnel lens was inscribed inside 20 applanated corneas of Dutch Belted rabbits, over a circular region of the mid-stroma measuring 4.5 mm in diameter. Twelve additional rabbit eyes were used as applanation-only controls to differentiate the effects of laser treatment and suction applanation on biological and structural parameters. In vivo optical measurements were performed pre-operatively, then immediately, 2, 4, and 12 weeks after the procedure, to measure endothelial cell density and changes in corneal structure. Groups of four rabbits were sacrificed at 4 hours, 2, 4, and 12 weeks after LIRIC for histological determinations; the TUNEL assay was used to evaluate cell death, H&E staining was used to assess inflammatory infiltration, and immunostaining for α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and ßIII tubulin (Tuj-1) was performed to assess myofibroblast differentiation and corneal nerve distribution, respectively. Consistent with prior ex vivo data, only minimal cell death was observed in the laser focal zone, with TUNEL-positive cells restricted to the stromal region of refractive index change 4 h after LIRIC. No TUNEL-positive cells were evident anywhere in the cornea 2, 4, or 12 weeks after LIRIC. Applanation-only corneas were completely TUNEL-negative. Neither LIRIC-treated nor applanation-only eyes exhibited α-SMA-positive staining or altered corneal nerve distributions at any of the time points examined. In vivo confocal imaging revealed normal endothelial cell densities in all eyes (whether LIRIC-treated or applanation-only) at all time points. Optical coherence tomography showed suction applanation to cause a temporary decrease in central corneal thickness, which returned to normal within 4 h. Corneas into which LIRIC Fresnel lenses were written while applanated did not undergo major structural or shape changes beyond the temporary thinning already described for suction applanation. The present findings suggest that LIRIC patterns, which generated a clinically-relevant refractive correction in the mid-stromal region of live rabbit corneas, induced little-to-no disruption to corneal structure and biology for 3 months after the procedure. This affirms the relative safety of LIRIC and predicts that compared to traditional laser vision correction surgeries, common post-operative complications such as dry eye, haze, or patient discomfort may be entirely avoided.

Pigment Epithelium-Derived Factor Peptide Promotes Corneal Nerve Regeneration: An In Vivo and In Vitro Study.

Purpose: To investigate the potential of a pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) peptide 44-mer to promote nerve regeneration in a rabbit corneal nerve injury model to demonstrate its neurotrophic ability in cultivated mouse trigeminal neuron cells. Methods: Subconjunctival or intrastromal injection of 44-mer on the cornea was performed in a rabbit model of corneal nerve injury created by corneal epithelial debridement. Immunocytochemical analysis (44-mer, anti-tubulin III, SMI312, CD11b, and α-SMA) and in vivo confocal microscopy were performed. Corneal sensation was estimated using a Cochet-Bonnet corneal esthesiometer. Primary cultivated mouse trigeminal neurons were used to examine the in vitro neurotrophic ability of 44-mer. The cellular morphology and the immunocytochemical staining with anti-tubulin III and SMI312 in different concentrations of 44-mer were compared, and a quantitative assessment of neurite outgrowth was performed. Results: Immunohistochemical staining showed the retention of 44-mer in the corneal stroma for at least 7 days after a single dose of corneal intrastromal injection and promoted corneal nerve regeneration revealed by in vivo confocal microscopy. Corneal esthesiometer demonstrated gradual recovery of the corneal sensation in 44-mer-treated eyes with a lower corneal touch threshold than wounded vehicles and closer to baseline at 3 weeks after corneal injury (P < 0.001). In vitro studies showed a dose-dependent neurotrophic effect of 44-mer in cultivated trigeminal neuron cells. Conclusions: The 44-mer showed in vivo and in vitro corneal neurotrophic abilities. Our results suggest that intrastromal injection of 44-mer into the corneal stroma may have a potential role in treating diseases related to corneal nerve damage.

The effect of nerve growth factor on corneal nerve regeneration and dry eye after LASIK.

Dry eye is the most common complication after refractive surgery, especially after laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK), in which nerves may be cut when making the corneal flap. Nerve growth factor (NGF) has been demonstrated to stimulate corneal sensitivity and nerve regeneration and NGF has been suggested as a potential treatment for dry eye disease (DED). Hence, this study aimed to investigate the effect of NGF on corneal nerve regeneration, sensitivity and dry eye symptoms after LASIK, compared to hycosan and normal saline (NS) treatments. Thirty-eight New Zealand white rabbits that underwent LASIK procedures were randomly assigned to three groups. Each group underwent NGF, hycosan, and NS treatment. The nerve densities and the number of corneal sub-basal and superficial stromal nerves were measured with confocal microscopy, and the results were compared before surgery and at one month and three months postoperatively. Corneal sensitivity was assessed with an esthesiometer. The tear breakup time (TBUT) was recorded to check for signs of dry eye. The whole corneas of the experimental animals were excised at three months after the surgery for immunohistochemically analysis. After LASIK, treatment with NGF significantly accelerated the recovery of sub-basal and superficial stromal nerve densities and the numbers, compared to hycosan and NS treatments at one month and three months postoperatively (NGF vs. hycosan, P < 0.01 each; NGF vs. NS, P < 0.01 each). The recovery of corneal sensitivity was significantly enhanced in the NGF group compared to the hycosan or NS treatment groups after surgery (P < 0.05). Also, the TBUT data showed a statistically significant longer time in the NGF group at one month, and three months postoperatively (P < 0.05). Immunofluorescence analysis showed the nerve fiber quantity of the NGF group was larger than in the hycosan and NS groups. Taken together, the experimental results suggested that mNGF had an obvious effect on promoting corneal nerve repairing and the potential to improve dry eye in different periods following LASIK.

Genetically Encoded Calcium Indicators for In Situ Functional Studies of Corneal Nerves.

Purpose: Millions of people suffer from diseases that involve corneal nerve dysfunction, caused by various conditions, including dry eye syndrome, neurotrophic keratopathy, diabetes, herpes simplex, glaucoma, and Alzheimer's disease. The morphology of corneal nerves has been studied extensively. However, corneal nerve function has only been studied in a limited fashion owing to a lack of tools. Here, we present a new system for studying corneal nerve function. Methods: Optical imaging was performed on the cornea of excised murine globes taken from a model animal expressing a genetically encoded calcium indicator, GCaMP6f, to record calcium transients. A custom perfusion and imaging chamber for ex vivo murine globes was designed to maintain and stabilize the cornea, while allowing the introduction of chemical stimulation during imaging. Results: Imaging of calcium signals in the ex vivo murine cornea was demonstrated. Strong calcium signals with minimal photobleaching were observed in experiments lasting up to 10 minutes. Concentrated potassium and lidocaine solutions both modulated corneal nerve activity. Similar responses were observed in the same neurons across multiple chemical stimulations, suggesting the feasibility of using chemical stimulations to test the response of the corneal nerves. Conclusions: Our studies suggest that this tool will be of great use for studying functional changes to corneal nerves in response to disease and ocular procedures. This process will enable preclinical testing of new ocular procedures to minimize damage to corneal innervation and therapies for diminished neural function.

Asystole due to stimulation of the supraorbital nerve: abrupt and potentially fatal presentation of the trigeminocardiac reflex.

We present a case of sudden asystole that was elicited via the trigeminocardiac reflex in a patient undergoing surgery for a frontal sinus fracture. Asystole occurred after mild stimulation of the supraorbital nerve during dissection along the superior orbital rim. Anticholinergics were administered and lidocaine-soaked gauze was applied to the exposed wound. The patient was an athlete and had pre-existing sinus bradycardia. We hypothesise that the severe reflex response was associated with his underlying increased vagal tone. When performing surgery in patients with increased vagal tone, preventative measures to diminish the trigeminocardiac reflex are recommended. Further studies are needed.

Remodeling of Substance P Sensory Nerves and Transient Receptor Potential Melastatin 8 (TRPM8) Cold Receptors After Corneal Experimental Surgery.

Purpose: To investigate changes in corneal nerves positive to substance P (SP) and transient receptor potential melastatin 8 (TRPM8) and gene expression in the trigeminal ganglia (TG) following corneal surgery to unveil peripheral nerve mechanism of induced dry eye-like pain (DELP). Methods: Surgery was performed on mice by removing the central epithelial and anterior stromal nerves. Mice were euthanized at different times up to 15 weeks. Immunostaining was performed with TRPM8, SP, or protein gene product 9.5 (PGP9.5) antibodies, and epithelial nerve densities were calculated. The origin of TRPM8- and SP-TG neurons were analyzed by retrograde tracing. Gene expression in TG was studied by real-time PCR analysis. Results: SP-positive epithelial corneal nerves were more abundant than TRPM8 and were expressed in different TG neurons. After injury, epithelial nerve regeneration occurs in two distinct stages. An early regeneration of the remaining epithelial bundles reached the highest density on day 3 and then rapidly degraded. From day 5, the epithelial nerves originated from the underlying stromal nerves were still lower than normal levels by week 15. The SP- and TRPM8-positive nerve fibers followed the same pattern as the total nerves. TRPM8-positive terminals increased slowly and reached only half of normal values by 3 months. Corneal sensitivity gradually increased and reached normal values on day 12. Corneal injury also induced significant changes in TG gene expression, decreasing trpm8 and tac1 genes. Conclusions: Abnormal SP expression, low amounts of TRPM8 terminals, and hypersensitive nerve response occur long after the injury and changes in gene expression in the TG suggest a contribution to the pathogenesis of corneal surgery-induced DELP.

Corneal nerves in health and disease.

The cornea is the most sensitive structure in the human body. Corneal nerves adapt to maintain transparency and contribute to corneal health by mediating tear secretion and protective reflexes and provide trophic support to epithelial and stromal cells. The nerves destined for the cornea travel from the trigeminal ganglion in a complex and coordinated manner to terminate between and within corneal epithelial cells with which they are intricately integrated in a relationship of mutual support involving neurotrophins and neuromediators. The nerve terminals/receptors carry sensory impulses generated by mechanical, pain, cold and chemical stimuli. Modern imaging modalities have revealed a range of structural abnormalities such as attrition of nerves in neurotrophic keratopathy and post-penetrating keratoplasty; hyper-regeneration in keratoconus; decrease of sub-basal plexus with increased stromal nerves in bullous keratopathy and changes such as thickening, tortuosity, coiling and looping in a host of conditions including post corneal surgery. Functionally, symptoms of hyperaesthesia, pain, hypoaesthesia and anaesthesia dominate. Morphology and function do not always correlate. Symptoms can dominate in the absence of any visible nerve pathology and vice-versa. Sensory and trophic functions too can be dissociated with pre-ganglionic lesions causing sensory loss despite preservation of the sub-basal nerve plexus and minimal neurotrophic keratopathy. Structural and/or functional nerve anomalies can be induced by corneal pathology and conversely, nerve pathology can drive inflammation and corneal pathology. Improvements in accuracy of assessing sensory function and imaging nerves in vivo will reveal more information on the cause and effect relationship between corneal nerves and corneal diseases.

Corneal Sensitivity After Ocular Surgery.

The cornea is densely innervated with free nerve endings to provide a high level of sensitivity to foreign bodies or noxious substances. They also provide trophic support to the tissues of the cornea and facilitate their repair and replacement. Any reduction in the function of the nerve endings through disease, contact lens wear, or surgery may lead to corneal disease, damage, or reduced healing. Assessment of the corneal nerve function can be made by the use of specialized instruments (aesthesiometers) that stimulate the corneal nerves using different modalities-mechanical, chemical, and thermal. Each modality assesses the function of a different cohort of corneal nerve type. Ocular surgery, particularly corneal surgery, can produce significant damage to the corneal innervation. However, for the majority of surgical procedures, corneal sensation eventually returns to preoperative levels, given enough time. The principal exceptions to this are penetrating keratoplasty, epikeratophakia, and cryo-keratomileusis, where sensation rarely returns to normal. For all types of surgery, the pattern of corneal sensation loss and recovery depends on the type, depth, and extent of incision because these influence the number of nerve fibers severed, and on the healing response of the patient.

Short-Term Effects of Overnight Orthokeratology on Corneal Sub-basal Nerve Plexus Morphology and Corneal Sensitivity.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effects of a short period of orthokeratology (OK) on corneal sub-basal nerve plexus (SBNP) morphology and corneal sensitivity. METHODS: Measurements were made in 56 right eyes of 56 subjects with low-to-moderate myopia who wore 2 OK lens designs (Group CRT: HDS 100 Paragon CRT, n=35; Group SF: Seefree; n=21) for a period of 1 month and in 15 right eyes of noncontact lens wearers as controls. The variables determined in each participant were corneal sensitivity using a Cochet-Bonnet esthesiometer and 12 SBNP variables determined on laser scanning confocal microscopy images using 3 different software packages. Correlation between SBNP architecture and corneal sensitivity was also examined. RESULTS: Few changes were observed over the 1-month period in the variables examined in the OK treatment and control groups. However, significant reductions were detected over time in the number of nerves in the central cornea in the groups CRT (P=0.029) and SF (P=0.043) and in central corneal sensitivity in CRT (P=0.047) along with significant increases in central and midperipheral corneal Langerhans cell counts in SF (P=0.001 and 0.048, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: This study provides useful data to better understand the anatomical changes induced by OK in corneal SBNP. The different response observed to the 2 OK lens designs requires further investigation.

Laser scanning in vivo confocal microscopy (IVCM) for evaluating human corneal sub-basal nerve plexus parameters: protocol for a systematic review.

INTRODUCTION: Laser scanning in vivo confocal microscopy (IVCM) enables non-invasive, high-resolution imaging of the cornea. In recent years, there has been a vast increase in researchers using laser scanning IVCM to image and quantify corneal nerve parameters. However, a range of methodological approaches have been adopted. The primary aim of this systematic review is to critically appraise the reported method(s) of primary research studies that have used laser scanning IVCM to quantify corneal sub-basal nerve plexus (SBNP) parameters in humans, and to examine corneal nerve parameters in healthy individuals. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: A systematic review of primary studies that have used laser scanning IVCM to quantify SBNP parameters in humans will be conducted. Comprehensive electronic searches will be performed in Ovid MedLine, Embase and the Cochrane Library. Two reviewers will independently assess titles and abstracts, and exclude studies not meeting the inclusion criteria. For studies judged eligible or potentially eligible, full texts will be independently assessed by two reviewers to determine eligibility. A third reviewer will resolve any discrepancies in judgement. Risk of bias will be assessed using a custom tool, covering five methodological domains: participant selection, method of image capture, method of image analysis, data reporting and other sources of bias. A systematic narrative synthesis of findings will be provided. A multilevel random-effects meta-analysis will be performed for corneal nerve parameters derived from healthy participants. This review will be reported according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: As this review considers published data, ethical approval is not required. We foresee that this synthesis will serve as a reference for future studies, and can be used to inform best practice standards for using IVCM in clinical research. A manuscript reporting the results of the review will be published and may also be presented at scientific conferences.

Nitroglycerin challenge induces lateralized headache in nasociliarynerve-ligated rats: implications for chronic migraine.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Chronic migraine is a common debilitating disease with limited treatment options. We aimed to develop a novel model for chronic migraine by ligating the nasociliary nerve (NCL) and administering nitroglycerin (NTG) to exacerbate acute headache attacks. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Exacerbation of the headache was induced by NTG (10 mg/kg, subcutaneously) administered to male Wistar rats (n = 36) 14 days following unilateral NCL. Cutaneous and cold allodynia was tested using Von Frey (VF) filaments and acetone, respectively. Elevated plus maze (EPM) results and c-fos immunoreactivity of TNC were investigated. RESULTS: NTG administration significantly decreased VF threshold values only in the nasociliary nerve (NCN) territory and the ipsilateral forepaw (P = 0.0001, P = 0.02). Cold allodynia developed in bilateral NCN territories (P = 0.013). The number/rate of entrance to open arms in the EPM was significantly decreased in NCN-ligated rats (P = 0.042, P = 0.035). Immunohistochemistry disclosed significantly increased c-fos-positive neurons in ipsilateral brainstem TNC compared to the contralateral side (brain stem LI ipsilateral 25.4 ± 4.7, contralateral 11.8 ± 1.9, P < 0.05) in chronic NCN-ligated rats exposed to acute NTG. CONCLUSION: The presented model provides a valid chronic migraine model relevant to humans, as NTG challenge in chronic NCL rats generated lateralized headache with cephalic and extracephalic allodynia, altered cold sensitivity, anxiety, and neuronal activation in the nociceptive laminae of brainstem trigeminal pain nuclei.

Corneal hypoesthesia with normal sub-basal nerve density following surgery for trigeminal neuralgia.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the corneal sub-basal nerve plexus in patients presenting with hypoesthesia following surgery for trigeminal neuralgia. METHODS: Twenty-one patients who had unilateral medically uncontrolled trigeminal neuralgia and underwent ipsilateral surgery from 2006 to 2012 were included. Of these, 10 had microvascular decompression (MVD group) and 11 had balloon compression of the trigeminal ganglion (BC group). Slit lamp examination, Cochet-Bonnet aesthesiometery and in vivo confocal microscopy were carried out on both eyes of each patient. Nerve density data were statistically analysed. RESULTS: Corneal sensations and sub-basal nerve densities in MVD group were normal and equal in both the operated and unoperated sides, indicating that there was no intra-operative damage of the ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve (V1). However, those in BC group, despite having significantly reduced corneal sensations on the operated side (p = 0.007), did not demonstrate any significant difference in their sub-basal nerve densities (p = 0.477). No patient had any ocular symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: This study supports the hypothesis that complete ganglionic damage and/or postganglionic damage of V1 results in corneal hypoesthesia and neurotrophic keratitis, but partial ganglionic or preganglionic damage would preserve trophic function despite hypoesthesia and not result in clinically significant symptoms or signs of neurotrophic keratitis. The trophic and sensory functions of V1 are therefore independent and can be dissociated by disease or injury.

The PEDF Neuroprotective Domain Plus DHA Induces Corneal Nerve Regeneration After Experimental Surgery.

PURPOSE: To compare a 44-mer pigment epithelial-derived factor (PEDF) peptide with neurotrophic activity, and a 34-mer PEDF with antiangiogenic properties in association with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in corneal nerve regeneration after experimental surgery. METHODS: A corneal stromal dissection was performed in rabbits. Treatment groups received topical 44-mer, 34-mer, or full PEDF plus DHA. Corneal sensitivity and Schirmer's test were performed weekly. Rabbits were euthanized at 2 and 4 days and 8 weeks. Two- and 4-day samples were stained for neutrophils and CD11b+ cells. Corneal nerves were stained with ßIII tubulin and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) antibodies in specimens collected at 8 weeks. Subepithelial nerve plexus density was calculated. A PEDF-receptor (PEDF-R) was analyzed in rabbit corneal epithelial cells (RCEC) by Western blot and immunofluorescence. RESULTS: Infiltration of CD11b+cells and neutrophils was reduced by treatment with 44-mer PEDF+DHA. A 3-fold increase in subepithelial corneal nerves and CGRP-positive nerves was found in the 44-mer PEDF+DHA-treated group compared with the 34-mer PEDF+DHA- and vehicle-treated groups. There was a 75% recovery of corneal sensitivity by week 7, and Schirmer's test reached control values in the 44-mer PEDF+DHA-treated corneas at 7 weeks. A PEDF-R protein with homology to calcium-independent phospholipase A2ς was expressed in RCEC. CONCLUSIONS: The 44-mer PEDF+DHA, but not the 34-mer PEDF+DHA, promotes functional regeneration of damaged corneal nerves. Forty four-mer PEDF, by activating a corneal epithelial receptor, in conjunction with DHA could be a novel therapeutic agent for the treatment of neurotrophic keratitis and dry eye that develops as a result of corneal nerve damage.

Communications Between the Trigeminal Nerve and the Facial Nerve in the Face: A Systematic Review.

The aim of the article is to elucidate the communications between the trigeminal nerve and facial nerve in the face. In a PubMed search, 328 studies were found using the terms 'trigeminal nerve, facial nerve, and communication.' The abstracts were read and 39 full-text articles were reviewed. Among them, 11 articles were analyzed. In the studies using dissection, the maxillary branch (V2) had the highest frequency (95.0% ±â€Š8.0%) of communication with the facial nerve, followed by the mandibular branch (V3) (76.7% ±â€Š38.5%). The ophthalmic branch (V1) had the lowest frequency of communication (33.8% ±â€Š19.5%). In a Sihler stain, all of the maxillary branches and mandibular branches had communications with the facial nerve and 85.7% (12/14 hemifaces) of the ophthalmic branches had communications. The frequency of communications between the trigeminal nerve and facial nerve were significantly higher (P = 0.00, t-test) in the studies using a Sihler stain (94.7% ±â€Š1.1%) than the studies using dissection (76.9 ±â€Š35.8). The reason for the significantly higher frequency of trigeminal-facial communication in the studies using a Sihler stain is because of the limitation of the Sihler stain itself. This technique cannot differentiate the motor nerves from sensory nerves at the periphery, and a crossover can be misinterpreted as communication near to nerve terminal.

Pain. Part 2a: Trigeminal Anatomy Related to Pain.

In order to understand the underlying principles of orofacial pain it is important to understand the corresponding anatomy and mechanisms. Paper 1 of this series explains the central nervous and peripheral nervous systems relating to pain. The trigeminal nerve is the 'great protector' of the most important region of our body. It is the largest sensory nerve of the body and over half of the sensory cortex is responsive to any stimulation within this system. This nerve is the main sensory system of the branchial arches and underpins the protection of the brain, sight, smell, airway, hearing and taste, underpinning our very existence. The brain reaction to pain within the trigeminal system has a significant and larger reaction to the threat of, and actual, pain compared with other sensory nerves. We are physiologically wired to run when threatened with pain in the trigeminal region and it is a 'miracle' that patients volunteer to sit in a dental chair and undergo dental treatment. Clinical Relevance: This paper aims to provide the dental and medical teams with a review of the trigeminal anatomy of pain and the principles of pain assessment.

Corneal neurotization from the supratrochlear nerve with sural nerve grafts: a minimally invasive approach.

Corneal anesthesia is a debilitating condition which can ultimately lead to blindness from repetitive corneal injury and scarring. We have developed a minimally invasive technique for corneal re-innervation that we have used with excellent results in ten eyes. This article and accompanying video describes the relevant anatomy and demonstrates the technique in detail.

Neurostimulation of the lacrimal nerve for enhanced tear production.

PURPOSE: To design a proof-of-concept study to assess the effect of lacrimal nerve stimulation (LNS) with an implantable pulse generator (IPG) to increase aqueous tear production. METHODS: Experimental animal study design of 6 Dutch Belted rabbits. Ultra high-resolution optical coherence tomography (UHR-OCT) quantified tear production by measuring the baseline tear volume of each rabbit's OD and OS. A neurostimulator was implanted adjacent to the right lacrimal nerve. After 2 minutes of LNS (100 µs, 1.6 mA, 20 Hz, 5-8 V), the tear volumes were measured with UHR-OCT. The change in tear volume was quantified and compared with the nonstimulated OS. Three rabbits underwent chronic LNS (100 µs, 1.6 mA, 10 Hz, 2 V) and their lacrimal glands were harvested for histopathologic analysis. RESULTS: The UHR-OCT imaging of the OD tear volume showed a 441% average increase in tear production after LNS as a percent of baseline. After stimulation, OD had statistically significant greater increase in tear volumes than OS (p = 0.028, Wilcoxon test). Poststimulation OD tear volumes were significantly greater compared with baseline (p = 0.028, Wilcoxon test). Histopathologic examination of the lacrimal glands showed no discernible tissue damage from chronic neurostimulation. In addition, there were no gross adverse effects on the general well-being of the animals due to chronic stimulation. CONCLUSIONS: LNS with an IPG appears to increase aqueous tear production. Chronic LNS showed no histopathologic lacrimal gland damage. This study suggests that LNS is a promising new treatment strategy to increase aqueous tear production.

Ocular surface sensitivity repeatability with Cochet-Bonnet esthesiometer.

PURPOSE: To determine the repeatability of ocular surface threshold measurements using the Cochet-Bonnet esthesiometer on the same day and 3 months apart. METHODS: Two separate studies were conducted to determine the repeatability of ocular surface threshold measurements made on the same day (n = 20 subjects) and 3 months apart (n = 29 subjects). The Cochet-Bonnet esthesiometer was used to measure corneal and inferior conjunctival thresholds using the ascending method of limits. The pressure exerted by the Cochet-Bonnet esthesiometer was determined using an analytical balance, for both the 0.08- and 0.12-mm-diameter filaments. This calibration was then used to convert filament length measurements to pressure. Repeatability was determined using a Bland and Altman analysis. RESULTS: The pressure exerted at each filament length differed between the two filament diameters. The measured pressure also differed from values provided by the manufacturer. Repeatability of threshold measurements at the central cornea was shown to be good, with better repeatability for same-day measurements (coefficient of repeatability [CoR] = ±0.23 g/mm²) than for those 3 months apart (CoR = ±0.52 g/mm²). Threshold measurements at the inferior conjunctiva, in contrast, were poorly repeatable (CoR = ±12.78 g/mm²). CONCLUSIONS: Cochet-Bonnet esthesiometry is repeatable when performed on the central cornea on the same day and 3 months apart, but this instrument is not recommended for conjunctival threshold measurements.

Trigeminofacial reflex: a means of detecting proximity to ophthalmic and maxillary divisions of the trigeminal nerve during surgery.

OBJECT: The aim in this paper was to localize and detect incipient damage to the ophthalmic and maxillary branches of the trigeminal nerve during tumor surgery. METHODS: This was an observational study of patients with skull base, retroorbital, or cavernous sinus tumors warranting dissection toward the cavernous sinus at a university hospital. Stimuli were applied as normal during approach to the cavernous sinus to localize cranial nerves (CNs) III, IV, and VI. Recordings were also obtained from the facial muscles to localize CN VII. The trigeminofacial reflex was sought simply by observing a longer time base routinely. RESULTS: Clear facial electromyography responses were reproduced when stimuli were applied to the region of V1, V2, and V3. Response latency was increased compared with direct CN VII stimuli seen in some cases. Responses gave early warning of approach to these sensory trigeminal branches. CONCLUSIONS: The authors submit this as a new technique, which may improve the chances of preserving trigeminal sensory branches during surgery in this region.