A Second Introduction to the Neurobiology of Interval Timing.

Time is a critical variable that organisms must be able to measure in order to survive in a constantly changing environment. Initially, this paper describes the myriad of contexts where time is estimated or predicted and suggests that timing is not a single process and probably depends on a set of different neural mechanisms. Consistent with this hypothesis, the explosion of neurophysiological and imaging studies in the last 10 years suggests that different brain circuits and neural mechanisms are involved in the ability to tell and use time to control behavior across contexts. Then, we develop a conceptual framework that defines time as a family of different phenomena and propose a taxonomy with sensory, perceptual, motor, and sensorimotor timing as the pillars of temporal processing in the range of hundreds of milliseconds.

Requerimientos para la producción e implementación de un Material Educativo Digital / Requirements for Producing and Implementing Digital Educational Materials

Introducción: La revolución digital ha llegado al campo educativo y exige que los entornos educativos digitales generen experiencias educativas contundentes. Para realizar este proceso, es fundamental diseñar y construir un material educativo digital (MED) ajustado a los lineamientos tecnológicos, técnicos y pedagógicos enmarcados en la neurobiología del aprendizaje (NA) del estudiante. Objetivo: Evaluar los elementos necesarios para la producción de un material educativo digital (MED) inédito, mediante su implementación en estudiantes. Métodos: Se realizó un análisis cuantitativo a través del Test de Wilcoxon SR con el software SPSS de IBM, y un análisis cualitativo con el software QDA Miner. Posteriormente, se triangularon los datos. Resultados: En el análisis cuantitativo se obtuvo una diferencia estadísticamente significativa entre el pretest y el postest (p < 0,001) y la mediana entre dicha diferencia de 22,6 por ciento. En el análisis cualitativo se definieron tres categorías: los comentarios positivos de la experiencia, las sugerencias de los estudiantes al proceso y las dificultades técnicas surgidas durante la implementación. Conclusiones: Son evidentes el interés, la motivación, el enganche y el disfrute de los estudiantes de una forma activa en el proceso de aprendizaje, que proporcionan un punto de partida para transformar las prácticas educativas con resultados significativos(AU)

Introduction: The digital revolution has reached the educational field and demands that digital educational environments generate powerful educational experiences. To carry out this process, it is essential to design and build a digital educational material adjusted to the technological, technical and pedagogical guidelines framed in the student's neurobiology of learning. Objective: To evaluate the necessary elements for the production of an unpublished digital educational material, through its implementation in students. Methods: A quantitative analysis was performed through the Wilcoxon SR test using the IBM SPSS software, together with a qualitative analysis using the QDA Miner software. Subsequently, the data were triangulated. Results: The quantitative analysis yielded a statistically significant difference between pretest and posttest (p < 0.001), as well as a median difference of 22.6 percent. The qualitative analysis permitted to define three categories: positive comments on the experience, the students' suggestions to the process, and technical difficulties encountered during the implementation. Conclusions: The students' active interest in, motivation for, engagement towards and enjoyment of the learning process are evident, facts that provide a starting point for transforming educational practices with significant outcomes(AU)

Christofredo Jakob, los cimientos de la neurociencia argentina / Christofredo Jakob, the foundations of argentine neuroscience

El presente artículo es una reseña biográfica de la vida del Dr. Christofredo Jakob, desde su formación en Alemania, las personalidades que acompañaron su desarrollo y las publicaciones científicas en suelo germano. Luego llegarían los inicios de su trabajo en la Argentina y los principales alcances de sus investigaciones. A través de esta reseña recorremos los comienzos del estudio sistemático del sistema nervioso en el país y recordamos el Día del Neurocientífico argentino. (AU)

This article is a biographical review of the life of Dr. Christofredo Jakob, from his training in Germany, the personalities who accompanied his development and the scientific publications on German soil. Then came the beginnings of his work in Argentina and the main achievements of his research. Through this review, we retrace the beginnings of the systematic study of the nervous system in the country and we remember the Day of the Argentine Neuroscientist. (AU)

The neurobiology and therapeutic potential of multi-targeting ß-secretase, glycogen synthase kinase 3ß and acetylcholinesterase in Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, affecting almost 50 million of people around the world, characterized by a complex and age-related progressive pathology with projections to duplicate its incidence by the end of 2050. AD pathology has two major hallmarks, the amyloid beta (Aß) peptides accumulation and tau hyperphosphorylation, alongside with several sub pathologies including neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, loss of neurogenesis and synaptic dysfunction. In recent years, extensive research pointed out several therapeutic targets which have shown promising effects on modifying the course of the disease in preclinical models of AD but with substantial failure when transposed to clinic trials, suggesting that modulating just an isolated feature of the pathology might not be sufficient to improve brain function and enhance cognition. In line with this, there is a growing consensus that an ideal disease modifying drug should address more than one feature of the pathology. Considering these evidence, ß-secretase (BACE1), Glycogen synthase kinase 3ß (GSK-3ß) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) has emerged as interesting therapeutic targets. BACE1 is the rate-limiting step in the Aß production, GSK-3ß is considered the main kinase responsible for Tau hyperphosphorylation, and AChE play an important role in modulating memory formation and learning. However, the effects underlying the modulation of these enzymes are not limited by its primarily functions, showing interesting effects in a wide range of impaired events secondary to AD pathology. In this sense, this review will summarize the involvement of BACE1, GSK-3ß and AChE on synaptic function, neuroplasticity, neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. Additionally, we will present and discuss new perspectives on the modulation of these pathways on AD pathology and future directions on the development of drugs that concomitantly target these enzymes.

Effect of chronic unpredictable stress in female Wistar-Kyoto rats subjected to progesterone withdrawal: Relevance for Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder neurobiology.

Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD) is related to an abrupt drop in progesterone and impairments in the HPA axis that cause anxiety. Suffering persons report higher daily-life stress and anxiety proneness that may contribute to developing PMDD, considered a chronic stress-related disorder. Here, we explored the effect of chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) in rats subjected to progesterone withdrawal (PW) and evaluated gene expression of HPA axis activation in the stress-vulnerable Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rat strain that is prone to anxiety. Ovariectomized WKY rats were randomly assigned to CUS or Standard-housed conditions (SHC) for 30 days. To induce PW, animals received 2 mg/kg of progesterone on day 25th for 5 days; 24 h later, they were tested using the anxiety-like burying behavior test (BBT). After behavioral completion, rats were euthanized, and brains were extracted to measure Crh (PVN) and Nr3c1 (hippocampus) mRNA. Blood corticosterone and vasopressin levels were determined. Results showed that PW exacerbated anxiety-like behaviors through passive coping in CUS-WKY. PW decreased Crh-PVN mRNA and the Nr3c1-hippocampal mRNA expression in SHC. CUS decreased Crh-PVN mRNA compared to SHC, and no further changes were observed by PW or BBT exposure. CUS reduced Nr3c1-hippocampal gene expression compared to SHC animals, and lower Nr3c1 mRNA was detected due to BBT. The PW increased corticosterone in SHC and CUS rats; however, CUS blunted corticosterone when combined with PW+BBT and similarly occurred in vasopressin concentrations. Chronic stress blunts the response of components of the HPA axis regulation when PW and BBT (systemic and psychogenic stressors, respectively) are presented. This response may facilitate less adaptive behaviors through passive coping in stress-vulnerable subjects in a preclinical model of premenstrual anxiety.

Beneficial effects and neurobiological aspects of environmental enrichment associated to major depressive disorder and autism spectrum disorder.

A suitable enriched environment favors development but can also influence behavior and neuronal circuits throughout development. Studies have shown that environmental enrichment (EE) can be used as an essential tool or combined with conventional treatments to improve psychiatric and neurological symptoms, including major depressive disorder (MDD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Both disorders affect a significant percentage of the wofrld's population and have complex pathophysiology. Moreover, the available treatments for MDD and ASD are still inadequate for many affected individuals. Experimental models demonstrate that EE has significant positive effects on behavioral modulation. In addition, EE has effects on neurobiology, including improvement in synaptic connections and neuroplasticity, modulation of neurotransmissions, a decrease in inflammation and oxidative stress, and other neurobiology effects that can be involved in the pathophysiology of MDD and ASD. Thus, this review aims to describe the leading behavioral and neurobiological effects associated with EE in MDD and ASD.

Dificultades interpersonales en los trastornos alimentarios: un modelo psiconeurobiológico explicativo/comprensivo / Interpersonal difficulties in eating disorders: an explanatory/ comprehensive psychoneurobiological model

RESUMEN: Antecedentes: Los trastornos alimentarios (TCA) presentan entre sus síntomas disfunciones psicosociales como ansiedad social, alexitimia y falta de asertividad. Objetivo: Se propone un modelo explicativo/comprensivo que integra aspectos de psiconeurobiología y comportamiento útil para la clínica. Método: Se evaluó una revisión de la literatura en Medline / PubMed, SciELO y bases de datos de textos especializados con criterios de calidad. Fueron seleccionados conceptos centrales para construir una coherencia que permitiera la lectura psiconeurobiológica del fenómeno y su aplicación clínica. Resultados: Cuatro factores fueron dispuestos a significar: 1- sistema de alarma; 2- sistema de recompensa 3- cerebro social; 4-mecanismos de control (inhibición/excitación). Se dispusieron mostrando la complejidad de su interacción psicofisiológica. Se sugiere que la ingesta de alimentos podría funcionar como una forma primaria de equilibrio cuando hay fallas en alguno de los sistemas expuestos. Conclusión: Se presenta un modelo de integración psiconeurobiológico útil para explicar la dificultad interpersonal en TCA. Esta forma de comprensión facilita: la conexión entre las investigaciones emergentes en TCA y DI; la toma de decisiones clínicas y orientan el pronóstico y las alternativas de tratamiento.

ABSTRACT Background: Eating disorders (ED) are characterized by psychosocial disfunctions, like social anxiety, alexithymia and lack of assertiveness. Objective: To propose a comprehensive integrative model including neurobiology and behavior aspects. Method: A literature review on Medline/PubMed, SciELO and specialized texts databases were assessed against quality criteria. Core concepts were extracted and coherence articulated. Results: Four factors were disposed to meaning: alarm and reward system with social brain and control (inhibition/excitation) mechanisms. They were articulate in a complex psychophysiological interplay. They were associated with social behaviours achieved/not achieved during development. Food intake could operate like a pathological balance to psychopathological effects Conclusion: An explanatory/comprehensive psychoneurobiological model to understand social function in ED is proposed. This form of understanding facilitates: the connection between emerging research in eating disorders and ID; clinical decision-making and guide the prognosis and treatment alternatives.

Dependencia de sustancias psicoactivas en Costa Rica: aspectos epidemiológicos y neurobiológicos de una enfermedad incomprendida / Substance dependence in Costa Rica: epidemiological and neurobiological aspects of a misunderstood disease

Resumen Introducción: se estima que entre un 80 % y un 90 % de la población mundial ha consumido sustancias psicoactivas (SPA), pero solo un 15 % llega a desarrollar una dependencia. El objetivo de este ensayo es describir los antecedentes epidemiológicos, los aspectos clínicos y los mecanismos neurobiológicos asociados a la dependencia de SPA. Luego, se reflexiona sobre algunas estrategias ambientales para su prevención y/o tratamiento. Proposición: la dependencia no es un simple vicio producto de la holgazanería o la falta de carácter, sino, un trastorno neuropsquiátrico que debe ser reconocido como tal. Para ello, es indispensable conocer sus factores etiológicos, así como los mecanismos neurobiológicos involucrados. Argumentos para la discusión: todas las SPA activan directa o indirectamente el sistema dopaminérgico mesolímbico, el cual, tras el abuso, produce la sensibilización del sistema motivacional y la desensibilización del sistema hedónico. Este fenómeno provoca el uso más frecuente y en mayor cantidad, a pesar de que los efectos placenteros sean cada vez menores. El malestar físico y emocional causado por el síndrome de abstinencia contribuye a dicha compulsión, la cual se sale de control producto de las alteraciones del funcionamiento ejecutivo y la corteza prefrontal. Conclusiones: la dependencia es una enfermedad del cerebro inducida por el consumo crónico de las SPA en conjunto con factores neurobiológicos y psicosociales de vulnerabilidad. El acceso a contacto social, ejercicio físico y estimulación sensorio-cognitiva podría representar una estrategia altamente eficaz para el manejo de la dependencia y el mejoramiento de la salud mental.

Abstract Introduction: It has been estimated that 80% to 90% of the population worldwide has ever consumed psychoactive substances (PAS), but only 15% will develop addiction. The goal of the current essay is to describe concisely the epidemiological background, the clinical foundations, and neurobiological mechanisms of addiction. Finally, it will briefly examine some environmental strategies aimed to prevent and/or treat addiction. Addiction is not a simple vice consequence of laziness or lack of character, but a neuropsychiatric disorder that must be recognized as such. Proposal: To attain this ultimate goal, the etiological factors and the neurobiological mechanisms of addiction must be revealed and disseminated. Arguments for discussion: All PAS directly or indirectly activate the mesolimbic dopaminergic system, which -after repeated intake- sensitizes and desensitizes the motivational and the hedonic system, respectively. This phenomenon causes PAS to be consumed more frequently and at higher doses despite their effects being progressively less rewarding. Consequently, the physical and emotional distress derived from the withdrawal syndrome exacerbates the compulsive PAS intake, while the completely loss of control results from impairments in the executive functions and the prefrontal cortex. Conclusions: Addiction is a brain disease induced by the chronic consumption of PAS combined with neurobiological and psychosocial risk factors. Exposure social contact, physical exercise, and sensory-cognitive stimulation may constitute a highly effective strategy for preventing and treating addiction and improving mental health as well.

Perspectiva histórica del trastorno del espectro del autismo / Historical perspective of autism spectrum disorder

RESUMEN INTRODUCCIÓN: El presente artículo incluye una mirada histórica de algunas teorías y clasificaciones del trastorno del espectro del autismo (TEA), incluyendo a los autores más reconocidos y las perspectivas semiológicas vigentes. Se pretende contribuir así a la unificación de criterios entre los profesionales, y propender por la reflexión acerca de las consecuencias de una conceptualización desacertada del trastorno. MATERIALES Y MÉTODO: Se trata de una revisión documental de artículos indexados en bases de datos, y otros documentos seleccionados intencionalmente. RESULTADOS: Tres categorías a saber fueron consideradas para la organización de la información: a) de la ficción a la ciencia: el paso de la sintomatología mítica a la clasificación nosológica; b) los pioneros austríacos: la dualidad inicial que se transformó en espectro; y c) trastorno del espectro del autismo: una trayectoria en la estructuración de sus criterios diagnósticos. DISCUSIÓN Y CONCLUSIONES: La variabilidad en las hipótesis etiológicas, así como en la manifestación de los síntomas nucleares del TEA, han impactado en su clasificación y abordaje terapéutico. Se requiere una actualización permanente de los profesionales por el avance de la genética y las neurociencias, siendo posible la futura generación de cambios en el rol de los profesionales que intervienen en su detección, evaluación e intervención.

ABSTRACT Introduction: This article involves a historical review of some theories and classifications of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), including the most recognized authors and current semiological perspectives. In this way, it is intended to contribute to the unification of criteria among professionals, and to encourage reflection on the consequences of an unwise conceptualization of the disorder. Materials and methods: It is a documentary review of articles indexed in databases, and other intentionally selected documents. Results: Three categories, namely, were considered for the organization of the information: a) from fiction to science: the transition from mythical symptomatology to nosological classification; b) the Austrian pioneers: the initial duality that became a spectrum; and c) autism spectrum disorder: a trajectory in the structuring of its diagnostic criteria. Discussion and conclusions: The variability in the etiological hypotheses, as well as in the manifestation of the core symptoms of ASD, have impacted its classification and therapeutic approach. A permanent update of professionals is required due to the advancement of genetics and neurosciences, making possible the future generation of changes in the role of professionals involved in its detection, evaluation and intervention.

Mudanças de paradigma em psicanálise, neurobiologia da memória e grupanálise / Paradigm shifts in psychoanalysis, neurobiology of memory and group analysis / Cambios deparadigma en psicoanálisis, neurobiología de la memoria y grupo análisis

A autora aborda, sucintamente, a sucessiva emergência de paradigmas em psicanálise e o estabelecimento na atualidade de um diálogo com as neurociências com ênfase nos seus aportes sobre a neurobiologia da memória. Termina fazendo uma breve reflexão das implicações dos factos apontados sobre o devir da grupanálise.

The autor addresses the successive emergence of paradigms in psychoanalysis and the establishment, today, of a dialogue with neurosciences with emphasis on the contributions to the neurobiology of memory. It ends with a brief reflection on the possible implications of the facts pointed out in the future of the group analysis.

El autor aborda, brevemente, la sucessiva emergência de paradigmas en psicoanálisis y entabla un diálogo com las neurociências com énfasis en contribuciones sobre a neurobiologia de la memoria. Termina com una breve reflexión sobre las posibles implicaciones de los hechos señalados en el transcurso del grupoanálisis.

La neurobiología del asesino: aspectos neuroanatómicos, genéticos, bioquímicos, extrínsecos y sociales / The neurobiology of the killer: neuroanatomical, genetic, biochemical, extrinsic and social aspects / A neurobiologia do assassino: aspectos neuroanatômicos, genéticos, bioquímicos, extrínsecos e sociais

El cuestionamiento del por qué alguien querría asesinar a otra persona aún no tiene una respuesta única: ¿supervivencia, odio, placer, venganza? Frente a este fenómeno, las neurociencias ofrecen un espacio de comprensión relevante y actual para dar respuesta a este interrogante. Diversos estudios clínicos y en neuroimagen han mostrado diversas alteraciones anatómicas, bioquímicas, genéticas y su relación con una variedad de redes neuronales asociadas a conductas agresivas. Subregiones en la corteza prefrontal, la amígdala, el hipocampo y el lóbulo temporal juegan un papel importante en el desarrollo y el funcionamiento de la biología de la agresión. Variaciones genéticas en la regulación de proteinas y neurotransmisores tales como la serotonina y la dopamina han sido establecidas como mediadores en las conductas agresivas y homicidas. Las interacciones epigenéticas y los mediadores sociales representan importantes factores de riesgo adicionales para la agresividad. El presente artículo sistematiza algunos de los factores que influyen en la conducta homicida. Delimita sus factores de riesgo y correlato neurobiológico, así como aporta información basada en evidencia que ayude en la prevención de dichos comportamientos, la comprensión multidimensional del delito y el desarrollo de intervenciones efectivas fundamentadas en las neurociencias cognitivas forenses.

The question of why someone would want to murder another person still has no single answer: survival, hatred, pleasure, revenge? In the face of this phenomenon, neuroscience offers a relevant and current area of understanding to answer this question. Several clinical and neuroimaging studies have shown diverse anatomical, biochemical and genetic alterations and their relationship with a variety of neural networks associated with aggressive behaviors. Subregions in the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus and temporal lobe play an important role in the development and functioning of the biology of aggression. Genetic variations in the regulation of proteins and neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine have been established as mediators of aggressive and homicidal behaviors. Epigenetic interactions and social mediators represent additional important risk factors for aggression. The present article systematizes some of the factors that influence homicidal behavior. It delineates their risk factors and neurobiological correlates, as well as provides evidence-based information to aid in the prevention of such behaviors, the multidimensional understanding of crime, and the development of effective interventions based on forensic cognitive neuroscience.

A questão de pôr que alguém quereria matar outra pessoa ainda não tem uma única resposta: sobrevivência, ódio, prazer, vingança? Diante deste fenômeno, as neurociências oferecem uma área relevante e atual de compreensão para responder a esta pergunta. Vários estudos clínicos e de neuroimagem têm mostrado diversas alterações anatômicas, bioquímicas e genéticas e sua relação com uma variedade de redes neurais associadas a comportamentos agressivos. Sub-regiões no córtex pré-frontal, amígdala, hipocampo e lobo temporal desempenham um papel importante no desenvolvimento e funcionamento da biologia da agressão. Variações genéticas na regulação de proteínas e neurotransmissores como a serotonina e a dopamina foram estabelecidas como mediadores de comportamentos agressivos e homicidas. As interações epigenéticas e os mediadores sociais representam fatores de risco adicionais importantes para a agressão. Este artigo sistematiza alguns dos fatores que influenciam o comportamento homicida. Ela delineia seus fatores de risco e correlatos neurobiológicos e fornece informações baseadas em evidências para ajudar na prevenção de tais comportamentos, na compreensão multidimensional do crime e no desenvolvimento de intervenções eficazes baseadas na neurociência cognitiva forense.

Transtorno de Jogo: contribuição da abordagem psicodinâmica no tratamento / Gambling Disorder: contributions of the psychodynamic approach to treatment / Jeu Pathologique: contributions de l'approche psychodynamique au traitement / Trastorno de Juego: contribución del enfoque psicodinámico al tratamiento

Resumo Jogos de azar podem ser uma atividade de lazer, mas sua prática em excesso pode levar a consequências adversas, como o Transtorno de Jogo. Apesar dos sérios prejuízos provocados por esse quadro, tanto o Transtorno de Jogo em si quanto estratégias de tratamento são pouco conhecidos no Brasil. Este trabalho aborda o Transtorno de Jogo e seu tratamento, tendo como objetivo explicitar a contribuição da abordagem psicodinâmica. São apresentadas as principais hipóteses psicodinâmicas existentes na literatura e tecidas considerações sobre a psicoterapia psicodinâmica realizada em um serviço que atende jogadores em São Paulo, o Programa Ambulatorial do Jogo Patológico (PRO-AMJO) do Instituto de Psiquiatria do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo (IPq HC-FMUSP). Por fim, alguns exemplos de perfis de jogadores patológicos são apresentados.

Abstract Gambling may be a leisure activity, but overdoing it can lead to adverse consequences such as Gambling Disorder. Despite the serious damage caused by the disorder, both Gambling Disorder and its treatment strategies are little known in Brazil. This study investigates Gambling Disorder and its treatment, emphasizing the contributions of the psychodynamic approach. The paper presents the main psychodynamic hypotheses in the literature and comments on the psychodynamic psychotherapy carried out in facilities treating pathological gamblers in São Paulo, such as the Pathological Gambling Outpatient Program (PRO-AMJO) of the Psychiatric Institute of Hospital das Clínicas (IPq HC-FMUSP). Finally, some examples of pathological gambler profiles are discussed.

Résumé Le jeu de hasard peut être un loisir, mais l'excès peut avoir des conséquences néfastes, comme le Jeu Pathologique. Malgré les graves consequences causés par ce trouble, le Jeu Pathologique et ses stratégies de traitement sont peu connus au Brésil. Cettte étude porte sur la Dépendence au jeu et son traitement, en mettant l'accent sur les contributions de l'approche psychodynamique. L'article présente les principales hypothèses psychodynamiques dans la littérature et reflète sur la psychothérapie psychodynamique réalisée dans les services qui s'occupent de joueurs à São Paulo, telles que le Programma ambulatoire sur la dépendance au jeu (PRO-AMJO) del'Institut de psychiatrie de l'Hospital das clínicas (IPq HC-FMUSP). Enfin, quelques exemples de profils de joueurs pathologiques sont discutés.

Resumen Los juegos de azar pueden ser una actividad de diversión, pero su práctica excesiva puede traer consecuencias adversas como el Trastorno de Juego. A pesar de los graves daños causados por este comportamiento, tanto el Trastorno de Juego en sí como las estrategias de tratamiento son poco conocidos en Brasil. Este trabajo aborda el Trastorno de Juego y su tratamiento, con el objetivo de hacer explícito la contribución del enfoque psicodinámico. Se presentan las principales hipótesis psicodinámicas en la literatura y se hacen consideraciones sobre la psicoterapia psicodinámica realizada en un servicio que atiende a jugadores en São Paulo, como el Programa del Hospital das Clínicas de la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad de São Paulo (IPq HC-FMUSP). Finalmente, se presentan algunos ejemplos de perfiles de jugadores patológicos.

Migration-related trauma and mental health among migrant children emigrating from Mexico and Central America to the United States: Effects on developmental neurobiology and implications for policy.

Children make up over half of the world's migrants and refugees and face a multitude of traumatic experiences prior to, during, and following migration. Here, we focus on migrant children emigrating from Mexico and Central America to the United States and review trauma related to migration, as well as its implications for the mental health of migrant and refugee children. We then draw upon the early adversity literature to highlight potential behavioral and neurobiological sequalae of migration-related trauma exposure, focusing on attachment, emotion regulation, and fear learning and extinction as transdiagnostic mechanisms underlying the development of internalizing and externalizing symptomatology following early-life adversity. This review underscores the need for interdisciplinary efforts to both mitigate the effects of trauma faced by migrant and refugee youth emigrating from Mexico and Central America and, of primary importance, to prevent child exposure to trauma in the context of migration. Thus, we conclude by outlining policy recommendations aimed at improving the mental health of migrant and refugee youth.

Single-cell proteomics: A treasure trove in neurobiology.

Single-cell analysis came to change the way we look at cell populations. RNA sequencing of single cells allowed us to appreciate the diversity of cell types in the human brain in an unprecedented manner and its power to reveal cell-type specific changes in cell populations has just begun to be explored. In this context, looking at the proteome of single cells promises to bring functional information and contribute to completing the picture. The potential of single cell proteome, in developing a better understanding of the intricate connections between the very diverse cell populations in the brain, is huge. Whereas early approaches to address single-cell proteome have identified hundreds of proteins, today, techniques combining isobaric labelling and LC-MS can lead to the identification of thousands of proteins. In this review, we describe methods which have been used to identify and quantify proteins from single cells and propose that the application of isobaric labeling and label-free quantitative proteomics approach for single-cell analysis is ready to provide useful information for the neurobiology field.

Un acercamiento al conocimiento de la presencia de marcadores neurobiológicos en la génesis del suicidio / An approach to the knowledge of the presence of neurobiological markers in the genesis of suicide

El suicidio ha constituido desde siempre uno de los grandes enigmas de la humanidad. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo abordar los elementos más actuales de la génesis neurobiológica de la conducta suicida que puedan contribuir a su prevención. Se realizaron diversas búsquedas en materiales impresos y digitales a partir de las consultas del catálogo online de la biblioteca virtual de Infomed, en bases de datos multidisciplinarias así como las revistas digitales certificadas. Entre los marcadores neurobiológicos descritos en la actualidad más destacados están bajos niveles del 5-HIAA en el líquido cefalorraquídeo (LCR), aumento de la densidad de los receptores 5-HT1A en la corteza pre-frontal, disminución de los sitios de unión del receptor serotoninérgico en la misma región, modificación del sistema GABA-érgico y los receptores benzodiazepínicos entre otros. A modo de conclusión se puede decir que los marcadores neurobiológicos y los factores psicopatológicos-de interacción familiar- de stress psicosocial descritos buscan identificar aquellos individuos con potencial riesgo de suicidio para establecer medidas de prevención, lo cual exige su detección e intervención a tiempo buscando evitar la ocurrencia del primer intento y a su vez la repetición del acto que conlleve al desenlace fatal(AU)

Suicide has always been one of the great enigmas of humanity. The present work aims to address the most current elements of the neurobiological genesis of suicidal behavior that can contribute to its prevention. Various searches were made of printed and digital materials based on queries in the online catalog of the Infomed virtual library, in multidisciplinary databases as well as certified digital journals. Among the most prominent neurobiological markers currently described are low levels of 5-HIAA in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), increased density of 5-HT1A receptors in the prefrontal cortex, decreased receptor binding sites serotonergic in the same region, decrease in platelet serotonin receptors, modification of the GABA-ergic system and benzodiazepine receptors, among others. Suicide has multidimensional qualities and a multifactorial etiopathogenesis, therefore, in the consummation of the suicidal act, genetic factors-neurobiological-psychopathological -family interaction-psychosocial stress should be considered. By way of conclusion, the neurobiological and psychosocial markers described seek to identify those individuals with a potential risk of suicide to establish a prevention measure, which requires their detection and intervention in time, see king to avoid the occurrence of the first attempt and, in turn, the repetition of the act that entails to the fatal outcome(EU)

A Simple and Low-Cost, but Naturalistic Method for Introducing Students to Action Potentials

Abstract Current trends in science education recommend the complementary use of virtual and hands-on methods of teaching. In neurobiology, for instance, there is a plethora of virtual laboratories and simulators that can be readily combined with traditional physical labs. Unfortunately, physical laboratories are almost unaffordable for many institutions due to the high cost of equipment. In this paper, we present a simple and low-cost in vivo method for demonstrating some of the basic biophysical properties of neural action potentials. The method involves the following steps: a) dissection of the ventral nerve cord of earthworm; b) electrical stimulation; c) amplification and visualization of the medial and lateral giant fibers' action potentials; and d) recording. The system showed stability, expected amplification, high signal-to-noise ratio, and an estimated total cost of US$ 5.662. We provide guidelines for assembling the system and discus its utility as a teaching alternative for low budget institutions.

Neurobiology of bipolar disorders: a review of genetic components, signaling pathways, biochemical changes, and neuroimaging findings

Bipolar disorder (BD) is a chronic mental illness characterized by changes in mood that alternate between mania and hypomania or between depression and mixed states, often associated with functional impairment. Although effective pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments are available, several patients with BD remain symptomatic. The advance in the understanding of the neurobiology underlying BD could help in the identification of new therapeutic targets as well as biomarkers for early detection, prognosis, and response to treatment in BD. In this review, we discuss genetic, epigenetic, molecular, physiological and neuroimaging findings associated with the neurobiology of BD. Despite the advances in the pathophysiological knowledge of BD, the diagnosis and management of the disease are still essentially clinical. Given the complexity of the brain and the close relationship between environmental exposure and brain function, initiatives that incorporate genetic, epigenetic, molecular, physiological, clinical, environmental data, and brain imaging are necessary to produce information that can be translated into prevention and better outcomes for patients with BD.

O nascimento e o desenvolvimento da neuro-psicanálise / The birth and development of neuro-psychoanalysis / El nacimiento y desarrollo del neuro-psicoanálisis

A Neuro-Psicanálise é uma área de investigação e estudo conceptual e epistemológico focado na reavaliação das hipóteses propostas pelo modelo psicanalítico da mente perante o recente manancial de novos dados científicos provindo de diferentes áreas de Cérebro e da sua atividade cerebral, o que tem permitindo o desenvolvimento e esclarecimento dos modelos neuro-dinâmicos relacionados com a atividade mental tanto consciente, assim como inconsciente. Os autores fizeram uma resenha sobre as circunstâncias de ordem histórica, filosófica e científica por detrás do nascimento deste movimento de diálogo entre a Psicanálise e as Neurociências Modernas, a Sociedade Internacional para a Neuro-Psicanálise, cujos fundamentos históricos estão consubstanciados na própria obra e vida de Sigmund Freud, o qual iniciou a vida profissional, como investigador em laboratórios de histologia médica, aí se interessou pelo estudo do sistema nervoso central e mais tarde iniciou atividade clínica em Neurologia. Somente a partir dos anos 50 do Seculo XX ocorreram as primeiras iniciativas precursoras para uma investigação neurocientífica moderna e foi na década de 80 que começou a surgir o manancial de dados científicos provindos de diferentes áreas de investigação neurológica, os quais permitem aventar as possibilidades de existirem eventuais correlações e correspondências entre os termos psicológicos e psicanalíticos com certas áreas e circuitos neurofisiológicos do Cérebro, assim possibilitando reabertura de um diálogo tão desejado por Freud e expresso na sua monografia intitulada: "Projecto para uma Psicologia Científica" de 1895, entre o modelo psicanalítico da Mente e os modelos neurobiológicos e neurocientíficos do Cérebro.

Neuro-Psychoanalysis is an area of conceptual and epistemological research focused on the reevaluation of hypotheses proposed by the psychoanalytic model of Mind (Psyché) facing recent and new scientific data emerging from the investigations over different Brain's areas and activities, which allows a development and clarification of new neuro-dynamic models related to both conscious and unconscious mental activity. The authors reviewed the historical, philosophical and scientific circumstances behind the birth of this movement of dialogue between Psychoanalysis and Modern Neurosciences, the International Society for Neuro-Psychoanalysis, whose historical foundations are embodied in the work and life of Sigmund Freud, who started his professional life as a researcher in medical histology laboratories and became interested in the study of the central nervous system and later on began his clinical practice in Neurology. Only at the decade of the 50s, the first precursor initiatives over modern neuroscientific research have taken place and only at the 80s emerge several sources of scientific data from different areas of neurological research which allowed the first possibilities for possible correlations and correspondences between psychological and psychoanalytic terms with certain areas and neurophysiological circuits of the Brain, thus enabling the reopening of a dialogue desired by Freud, in his monograph entitled: "Project for a Scientific Psychology" from 1895, between the psychoanalytic model of Mind and new neurobiological and neuroscientific models of the Brain.

El neuro-psicoanálisis es un área de investigación y de estudio conceptual y epistemológico centrado en la reevaluación de las hipótesis propuestas por el modelo psicoanalítico de la Mente frente a la riqueza reciente de nuevos datos científicos provenientes de diferentes áreas del Cerebro y su actividad cerebral, lo que ha permitido desarrollo y clarificación de modelos neurodinámicos relacionados tanto con la actividad mental consciente como inconsciente. Los autores revisaron las circunstancias históricas, filosóficas y científicas detrás del nacimiento de este movimiento de diálogo entre la Psicoanálisis y las Neurociencias, la Sociedad Internacional para el Neuro-Psicoanálisis, cuyos fundamentos históricos están encarnados en el trabajo y la vida de Sigmund Freud quien comenzó su vida profesional como investigador en laboratorios de histología médica e se interesó en el estudio del sistema nervioso central y más tarde comenzó la actividad clínica en Neurología. Solo a partir de los años 50 del siglo XX tuvieron lugar las primeras iniciativas precursoras para la investigación neurocientífica moderna, y fue en los años 80 que comenzó a surgir la fuente de datos científicos de diferentes áreas de la investigación neurológica, lo que permite avanzar las posibilidades de la existencia de posibles correlaciones y correspondencias entre términos psicológicos y psicoanalíticos con ciertas áreas y circuitos neurofisiológicos del cerebro, permitiendo así la reapertura de un diálogo tan deseado por Freud en su monografía titulada: "Proyecto para una psicología científica" de 1895 entre el modelo psicoanalítico de la mente y los nuevos modelos neurobiológicos y neurocientíficos del cerebro.

Neurobiología, neurociencia e inmunología en el espectro autista / Neurobiology, neuroscience and immunology in autism spectrum disorders / Neurobiologia, neurociência e inmunologia nele espectro autista

Se realizó un estudio sobre treinta pacientes con trastorno del espectro autista (TEA) que asisten para su atención a centros especializados que funcionan en la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires y en el conurbano bonaerense. A todos ellos se les efectuó un estudio psico-neuro-cognitivo exhaustivo, según la escala IDEA (Inventario del Espectro Autista) que tiene el objetivo de evaluar doce dimensiones características significativas en estos pacientes, con cuatro niveles de puntuación en cada una de las dimensiones estudiadas. Los padres o tutores completaron una encuesta con datos epidemiológicos y se investigaron posibles factores de alergias y/o intolerancias presentes. Esta encuesta también se hizo extensiva a otras familias con niños autistas, para que los datos epidemiológicos fueran representativos de una población mayor. Sobre los treinta pacientes estudiados se dosaron anticuerpos antiendomisio y antitransglutaminasa, ambos asociados con la enfermedad celíaca; IgE total, asociada a procesos de alergia y a parasitosis; homocisteína sérica o urinaria, cortisol sérico o urinario y factor neurotrófico derivado del cerebro (BNDF). Se trataron de establecer posibles asociaciones causales entre los parámetros estudiados y las manifestaciones de los trastornos autistas.

Thirty patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) who attend specialized centers in Buenos Aires and its suburbs were carefully studied. All of them underwent a psycho-neuro-cognitive study. The psychologists used the IDEA (Autism Spectrum Inventory) scale which is focused on twelve characteristically significant dimensions with four typical levels in each of those dimensions studied. Their parents or guardians completed a survey with epidemiological data and possible factors of allergies and/or intolerance presence were investigated. This survey was also distributed among other families with children with ASD condition so that the epidemiological results were taken from a larger number of cases. Anti-endomysial and anti-transglutaminase antibodies usually related to celiac disease, total IgE related to allergic processes, homocysteine measures in serum or urine, cortisol measured in serum or urine and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BNDF) were dosed in all the cases. The aim was to establish possible causal associations between the studied parameters and the manifestations of the autism spectrum disorder.

Foi conduzido um estudo em trinta pacientes com transtorno do espectro autista (TEA) que para serem atendidos frequentam centros especializados que operam na Cidade Autônoma de Buenos Aires e seus arrededores. Todos eles foram submetidos a um exaustivo estudo psico-neurocognitivo, de acordo com a escala IDEA (Inventário do Espectro Autista) que visa avaliar doze características significativas desses pacientes, com quatro níveis de pontuação em cada uma das dimensões estudadas. Os pais ou responsáveis responderam uma pesquisa com dados epidemiológicos e foram pesquisados possíveis fatores de alergias e / ou intolerâncias presentes. Essa pesquisa também foi estendida a outras famílias com crianças autistas, de modo que os dados epidemiológicos fossem representativos de uma população maior. Anticorpos antiendomísio e antitransglutaminase foram dosados nos trinta pacientes estudados, ambos associados à doença celíaca; IgE total associada a processos de alergia e a parasitose; homocisteína sérica ou urinária, cortisol sérico ou urinário e fator neurotrófico derivado do cérebro (BNDF). Tentou-se estabelecer possíveis associações causais entre os parâmetros estudados e as manifestações dos transtornos autistas.

Neurobiology of bipolar disorders: a review of genetic components, signaling pathways, biochemical changes, and neuroimaging findings.

Bipolar disorder (BD) is a chronic mental illness characterized by changes in mood that alternate between mania and hypomania or between depression and mixed states, often associated with functional impairment. Although effective pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments are available, several patients with BD remain symptomatic. The advance in the understanding of the neurobiology underlying BD could help in the identification of new therapeutic targets as well as biomarkers for early detection, prognosis, and response to treatment in BD. In this review, we discuss genetic, epigenetic, molecular, physiological and neuroimaging findings associated with the neurobiology of BD. Despite the advances in the pathophysiological knowledge of BD, the diagnosis and management of the disease are still essentially clinical. Given the complexity of the brain and the close relationship between environmental exposure and brain function, initiatives that incorporate genetic, epigenetic, molecular, physiological, clinical, environmental data, and brain imaging are necessary to produce information that can be translated into prevention and better outcomes for patients with BD.