Enantioselectivity in the tissue distribution of perhexiline contributes to different effects on hepatic histology and peripheral neural function in rats.

Perhexiline, a chiral drug, is a potent antiischemic agent whose clinical utility is limited by hepatic and neural toxicities. It inhibits mitochondrial carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1, however, excessive inhibition predisposes toward tissue steatosis. This pilot study investigated the distribution of the two enantiomers and their toxicological potential. Dark Agouti rats (n = 4 per group) were administered vehicle or 200 mg/kg daily of racemic, (+)- or (-)-perhexiline maleate orally for 8 weeks. Plasma biochemical liver function tests and Von Frey assessments of peripheral neural function were performed. Hepatic and neuronal histology, including lipid and glycogen content, was assessed using electron microscopy. Concentrations of the perhexiline enantiomers and metabolites were quantified in plasma, liver and heart. Plasma perhexiline concentrations following administration of racemate, (+)- or (-)-enantiomer were within the mid-upper clinical therapeutic range. There was extensive uptake of both enantiomers into liver and heart, with 2.5- to 4.5-fold greater net uptake of (+)- compared to (-)-perhexiline (P < .05) when administered as pure enantiomers, but not when administered as racemate. There was no biochemical or gross histological evidence of hepatotoxicity. However, livers of animals administered (+)-perhexiline had higher lipid (P < .01) and lower glycogen (P < .05) content, compared to those administered (-)-perhexiline. Animals administered racemic perhexiline had reduced peripheral neural function (P < .05) compared to controls or animals administered (-)-perhexiline. For the same plasma concentrations, differences in tissue distribution may contribute to disparities in the effects of (+)- and (-)-perhexiline on hepatic histology and neural function.

Development of Fluorinated Analogues of Perhexiline with Improved Pharmacokinetic Properties and Retained Efficacy.

We designed and synthesized perhexiline analogues that have the same therapeutic profile as the parent cardiovascular drug but lacking its metabolic liability associated with CYP2D6 metabolism. Cycloalkyl perhexiline analogues 6a-j were found to be unsuitable for further development, as they retained a pharmacokinetic profile very similar to that shown by the parent compound. Multistep synthesis of perhexiline analogues incorporating fluorine atoms onto the cyclohexyl ring(s) provided a range of different fluoroperhexiline analogues. Of these, analogues 50 (4,4-gem-difluoro) and 62 (4,4,4',4'-tetrafluoro) were highly stable and showed greatly reduced susceptibility to CYP2D6-mediated metabolism. In vitro efficacy studies demonstrated that a number of derivatives retained acceptable potency against CPT-1. Having the best balance of properties, 50 was selected for further evaluation. Like perhexiline, it was shown to be selectively concentrated in the myocardium and, using the Langendorff model, to be effective in improving both cardiac contractility and relaxation when challenged with high fat buffer.

Pleiotropic mechanisms of action of perhexiline in heart failure.

INTRODUCTION: The re-purposing of the anti-anginal drug perhexiline (PHX) has resulted in symptomatic improvements in heart failure (HF) patients. The inhibition of carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 (CPT-1) has been proposed as the primary mechanism underlying the therapeutic benefit of PHX. This hypothesis is contentious. AREAS COVERED: We reviewed the primary literature and patent landscape of PHX from its initial development in the 1960s through to its emergence as a drug beneficial for HF. We focused on its physico-chemistry, molecular targets, tissue accumulation and clinical dosing. EXPERT OPINION: Dogma that the beneficial effects of PHX are due primarily to potent myocardial CPT-1 inhibition is not supported by the literature and all available evidence point to it being extremely unlikely that the major effects of PHX occur via this mechanism. In vivo PHX is much more likely to be an inhibitor of surface membrane ion channels and also to have effects on other components of cellular metabolism and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation across the cardiovascular system. However, the possibility that minor effects of PHX on CPT-1 underpin disproportionately large effects on myocardial function cannot be entirely excluded, especially given the massive accumulation of the drug in heart tissue.

Can Perhexiline Be Utilized Without Long-Term Toxicity? A Clinical Practice Audit.

BACKGROUND: Perhexiline, originally used as a first-line prophylactic antianginal agent, is now regarded primarily as a treatment for otherwise refractory myocardial ischemia. Recent studies have also demonstrated its short-term utility in heart failure, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and inoperable aortic stenosis. Its benefits on myocardial energetics state are potentially counter-balanced by risk of hepatotoxicity and peripheral neuropathy during long-term treatment if drug accumulation occurs. Since perhexiline exhibits complex pharmacokinetics with wide inter-individual variability, its long-term use requires regular plasma concentration monitoring. In this study, the risk of neuro- and hepato-toxicity during long-term perhexiline therapy in relation to the intensity of therapeutic drug monitoring was investigated. Furthermore, determinants of mortality during perhexiline treatment were evaluated. METHODS: In 170 patients treated with perhexiline for a median of 50 months (interquartile range: 31-94 months), outcomes and relationship to plasma drug concentrations were documented. RESULTS: Rationale for treatment with perhexiline included myocardial ischemia in 88% and severe systolic heart failure in 38%. Plasma concentrations were within the therapeutic range of 150-600 ng/mL on 65% of assay occasions and toxic levels accounted for 8.8% of measurements. No patient developed hepatotoxicity attributable to perhexiline while 3 developed peripheral neuropathy possibly induced by treatment. Actuarial 5-year survival rate was 83% overall, and 76.3% in patients with associated systolic heart failure. CONCLUSIONS: This first audit of a large population treated long-term perhexiline demonstrates the following: (1) Although the frequency of monitoring is less than ideal, therapeutic drug monitoring effectively limits occurrence of toxic drug concentrations and virtually eliminates long-term hepato- and neuro-toxicity and (2) Mortality rates during long-term therapy, notably for patients with concomitant heart failure, are surprisingly low.

Use of 'dilute-and-shoot' liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry in preclinical research: application to a DMPK study of perhexiline in mouse plasma.

This work describes a simple, sensitive and rapid liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry method for the quantitation of perhexiline and the simultaneous detection of perhexiline metabolites in C57bl/6 mice plasma. Only 5 µL of plasma was used for analysis. Pretreatment was limited to a 100-fold dilution ('dilute-and-shoot'). The analyte was detected by high resolution mass spectrometry (Orbitrap™ technology). Three scan events were performed over the entire chromatogram. Targeted single ion monitoring with data dependent acquisition was employed for perhexiline quantitation and confirmation, while full scan was used to perform untargeted detection of perhexiline phase I and phase II circulating metabolites. The calibration curve was linear (r(2)=0.990) ranging from 0.305 ng/mL (LLOQ) to 10000 ng/mL. Matrix effect was limited to 6.1%. The method was applied to a pharmacokinetic study of perhexiline in mouse plasma and the results obtained were compared to a standard sample preparation method based on protein precipitation and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (MRM mode) detection. The new approach provided comparable results in terms of pharmacokinetics parameters estimate with a high sensitivity, additional information on perhexiline circulating metabolites and a low consumption of biological sample. The combination of the 'dilute-and-shoot' approach together with HRMS targeted and untargeted detection represents a suitable alternative to classic bioanalytical approaches in preclinical research.

Stereoselective handling of perhexiline: implications regarding accumulation within the human myocardium.

PURPOSE: Perhexiline is a prophylactic anti-ischaemic agent with weak calcium antagonist effect which has been increasingly utilised in the management of refractory angina. The metabolic clearance of perhexiline is modulated by CYP2D6 metaboliser status and stereoselectivity. The current study sought to (1) determine whether the acute accumulation of perhexiline in the myocardium is stereoselective and (2) investigate the relationship between duration of short-term therapy and the potential stereoselective effects of perhexiline within myocardium. METHOD: Patients (n = 129) from the active arm of a randomised controlled trial of preoperative perhexiline in cardiac surgery were treated with oral perhexiline for a median of 9 days. Correlates of atrial and ventricular concentrations of enantiomers were sought via univariate followed by multivariate analyses. RESULTS: Myocardial uptake of both (+) and (-) perhexiline was greater in ventricles than in atria, and there was more rapid clearance of (-) than (+) perhexiline. The main determinants of atrial uptake of both (+) and (-) perhexiline were the plasma concentrations [(+) perhexiline: ß = -0.256, p = 0.015; (-) perhexiline: ß = -0.347, p = 0.001] and patients' age [(+) perhexiline: ß = 0.300, p = 0.004; (-) perhexiline: ß = 0.288, p = 0.005]. Atrial uptake of (+) enantiomer also varied directly with duration of therapy (ß = 0.228, p = 0.025), while atrial uptake of (-) perhexiline varied inversely with simultaneous heart rate (ß = -0.240, p = 0.015). CONCLUSION: (1) Uptake of both perhexiline enantiomers into atrium is greater with advanced age and displays evidence of both saturability and minor stereoselectivity. (2) Atrial uptake of (-) perhexiline may selectively modulate heart rate reduction.

Relationship between plasma, atrial and ventricular perhexiline concentrations in humans: insights into factors affecting myocardial uptake.

AIM: Little is known regarding the steady-state uptake of drugs into the human myocardium. Perhexiline is a prophylactic anti-anginal drug which is increasingly also used in the treatment of heart failure and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. We explored the relationship between plasma perhexiline concentrations and its uptake into the myocardium. METHODS: Blood, right atrium ± left ventricle biopsies were obtained from patients treated with perhexiline for a median of 8.5 days before undergoing coronary surgery in the perhexiline arm of a randomized controlled trial. Perhexiline concentrations in plasma and heart tissue were determined by HPLC. RESULTS: Atrial biopsies were obtained from 94 patients and ventricular biopsies from 28 patients. The median plasma perhexiline concentration was within the therapeutic range at 0.24 mg l⁻¹ (IQR 0.12-0.44), the median atrial concentration was 6.02 mg kg⁻¹ (IQR 2.70-9.06) and median ventricular concentration was 10.0 mg kg⁻¹ (IQR 5.76-13.1). Atrial (r² = 0.76) and ventricular (r² = 0.73) perhexiline concentrations were closely and directly correlated with plasma concentrations (both P < 0.001). The median atrial : plasma ratio was 21.5 (IQR 18.1-27.1), ventricular : plasma ratio was 34.9 (IQR 24.5-55.2) and ventricular : atrial ratio was 1.67 (IQR 1.39-2.22). Using multiple regression, the best model for predicting steady-state atrial concentration included plasma perhexiline, heart rate and age (r² = 0.83). Ventricular concentrations were directly correlated with plasma perhexiline concentration and length of therapy (r² = 0.84). CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that plasma perhexiline concentrations are predictive of myocardial drug concentrations, a major determinant of drug effect. However, net myocardial perhexiline uptake is significantly modulated by patient age, potentially via alteration of myocardial:extracardiac drug uptake.

Interaction of terbinafine (anti-fungal agent) with perhexiline: a case report.

Perhexiline is a unique anti-anginal agent that is frequently used in the treatment of chronic refractory angina. Its utility has been limited because of its complex pharmacokinetics that were only appreciated following the development of a therapeutic perhexiline assay. Perhexiline is cleared primarily via formation of mono-hydroxy metabolites (OH-perhexiline) by cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6). Drugs that are inhibitors of CYP2D6 may therefore inhibit perhexiline metabolism, increase plasma perhexiline concentration and may consequently increase the risk of toxicity. We report a case of a rise in perhexiline plasma concentration to a toxic level following the introduction of terbinafine hydrochloride; a moderate CYP2D6 inhibiting drug.

Effects of aging, renal dysfunction, left ventricular systolic impairment, and weight on steady state pharmacokinetics of perhexiline.

MATERIALS AND METHODS: Two hundred patients at steady-state on long-term perhexiline were identified retrospectively. The ratio of maintenance dose to steady-state plasma concentration (dose:[Px]) was correlated with the following putative determinants via simple and multiple linear regression analyses: age, weight, left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), and creatinine clearance (CrCl, Cockroft-Gault formula). A Mann-Whitney U test was performed to determine if severe left ventricular systolic impairment affected maintenance dose. RESULTS: Advanced age, left ventricular systolic impairment, and renal impairment were frequently encountered. Using simple linear regression, age was a negative correlate of dose:[P] (R = 0.23, P = 0.001), whereas weight (R = 0.27, P = 0.0001) and CrCl (R = 0.30, P < 0.0001) were positive correlates. Mann-Whitney U analysis showed no difference between dose: [Px] among patients with LVEF of less than 30% versus 30% or greater. Advancing age was strongly associated with decreasing weight (R = -0.45, P < 0.00001) and calculated CrCl varied directly with weight, as expected (R = 0.66, P < 0.0001). Stepwise multiple linear regression using age, LVEF, CrCl, and weight as potential predictors of dose:[P] yielded only weight as a significant determinant. DISCUSSION: Perhexiline has become a "last-line" agent for refractory angina as a result of complex pharmacokinetics and potential toxicity. Use has increased predictably in the aged and infirm who have exhausted standard medical and surgical therapeutic options. Beyond genotype, the effect of patient characteristics on maintenance dose has not been explored in detail. In this study, dose requirement declined with age in a frail and wasting population as a result of weight-related pharmacokinetic factors. LVEF had no apparent effect on maintenance dose and should not be considered a contraindication to use. CONCLUSION: A weight-adjusted starting dose may facilitate the safe and effective prescription of perhexiline and is calculated by 50 + 2 × weight (kg) mg/d, rounded to the closest 50 mg/day.

Steady-state pharmacokinetics of the enantiomers of perhexiline in CYP2D6 poor and extensive metabolizers administered Rac-perhexiline.

UNLABELLED: What is already known about this subject. Perhexiline (PHX) is administered as a racemic mixture and exhibits enantioselective pharmacokinetics in both poor and extensive metabolizers of CYP2D6 (PM and EM, respectively). Extensive metabolism by CYP2D6 is primarily responsible for the observed enantioselectivity in EM, but the process responsible in PM is unknown. Analysis of the steady-state plasma concentration-time profiles of the enantiomers of PHX in PM and EM was undertaken in order to elucidate the observed enantioselectivity, particularly with respect to PM. What this study adds. This is the first study to examine the steady-state plasma concentration-time profiles of the enantiomers of PHX in EM and PM over the course of an interdosing interval. The apparent oral clearance of each enantiomer was calculated from their respective AUC rather than from trough concentrations and was enantioselective in both phenotypes, with higher apparent oral clearances of (-)-than (+)-PHX. Renal clearance, calculated for EM and subsequently assumed for PM, constitutes a greater proportion of the total apparent oral clearance of each enantiomer in PM than EM, but was not enantioselective and thus unable to explain the enantioselectivity observed in PM. AIMS: To determine the steady-state pharmacokinetics of perhexiline (PHX) enantiomers over one interdosing interval in CYP2D6 extensive and poor metabolizer (EM and PM, respectively) patients administered rac-PHX. To elucidate the processes responsible for enantioselectivity, particularly in PM patients. METHODS: Blood samples were taken over one interdosing interval from six EM and two PM patients at steady-state with respect to rac-PHX metabolism. Complete urine collections were taken from five EM patients. PHX concentrations in plasma and urine were determined with enantioselective high-performance liquid chromatography methods. RESULTS: EM patients had 16- and 10-fold greater median apparent oral clearances of (+)- and (-)-PHX, respectively, than PM patients (P < 0.05 for both) and required significantly larger doses of rac-PHX (69 vs. 4.2 microg kg(-1) h(-1), P < 0.05) to maintain therapeutic concentrations in plasma. Patient phenotypes were consistent with CYP2D6 genotypes. Both groups displayed enantioselective pharmacokinetics, with higher apparent oral clearances for (-)-PHX compared with (+)-PHX, although PM patients exhibited significantly greater enantioselectivity (P < 0.05). The renal clearance of PHX enantiomers was not enantioselective and accounted for <1% of the median apparent oral clearance of each enantiomer in EM patients. Assuming the same renal clearances for PM patients accounts for approximately 9 and 4% of their median apparent oral clearances of (+)- and (-)-PHX, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The enantioselective pharmacokinetics of PHX are primarily due to metabolism by CYP2D6 in EM patients. The mechanism responsible for the enantioselective pharmacokinetics of PHX in PM patients is unknown, but may be due to enantioselective biliary or intestinal excretion.

Perhexiline.

Perhexiline, 2-(2,2-dicyclohexylethyl)piperidine, was originally developed as an anti-anginal drug in the 1970s. Despite its success, its use diminished due to the occurrence of poorly understood side effects including neurotoxicity and hepatotoxicity in a small proportion of patients. Recently, perhexiline's mechanism of action and the molecular basis of its toxicity have been elucidated. Perhexiline reduces fatty acid metabolism through the inhibition of carnitine palmitoyltransferase, the enzyme responsible for mitochondrial uptake of long-chain fatty acids. The corresponding shift to greater carbohydrate utilization increases myocardial efficiency (work done per unit oxygen consumption) and this oxygen-sparing effect explains its antianginal efficacy. Perhexiline's side effects are attributable to high plasma concentrations occurring with standard doses in patients with impaired metabolism due to CYP2D6 mutations. Accordingly, dose modification in these poorly metabolizing patients identified through therapeutic plasma monitoring can eliminate any significant side effects. Herein we detail perhexiline's pharmacology with particular emphasis on its mechanism of action and its side effects. We discuss how therapeutic plasma monitoring has led to perhexiline's safe reintroduction into clinical practice and how recent clinical data attesting to its safety and remarkable efficacy led to a renaissance in its use in both refractory angina and chronic heart failure. Finally, we discuss the application of pharmacogenetics in combination with therapeutic plasma monitoring to potentially broaden perhexiline's use in heart failure, aortic stenosis, and other cardiac conditions.

Effect of CYP2D6 metabolizer status on the disposition of the (+) and (-) enantiomers of perhexiline in patients with myocardial ischaemia.

AIMS: This study investigated the effects of increasing doses of rac-perhexiline maleate and CYP2D6 phenotype and genotype on the pharmacokinetics of (+) and (-)-perhexiline. METHODS: In a prospective study, steady-state plasma concentrations of (+) and (-)-perhexiline were quantified in 10 CYP2D6 genotyped patients following dosing with 100 mg/day rac-perhexiline maleate, and following a subsequent dosage increase to 150 or 200 mg/day. In a retrospective study, steady-state plasma concentrations of (+) and (-)-perhexiline were obtained from 111 CYP2D6 phenotyped patients receiving rac-perhexiline maleate. RESULTS: In the prospective study, comprising one poor and nine extensive/intermediate metabolizers, the apparent oral clearance (CL/F) of both enantiomers increased with the number of functional CYP2D6 genes. In the nine extensive/intermediate metabolizers receiving the 100 mg/day dose, the median CL/F of (+)-perhexiline was lower than that of (-)-perhexiline (352.5 versus 440.6 l/day, P<0.01). Following the dosage increase, the median CL/F of both enantiomers decreased by 45.4 and 41.4%, respectively. In the retrospective study, the median (+)-/(-)-perhexiline plasma concentration ratio was lower (P<0.0001) in phenotypic extensive/intermediate (1.41) versus poor metabolizers (2.29). Median CL/F of (+) and (-)-perhexiline was 10.6 and 24.2 l/day (P<0.05), respectively, in poor metabolizers, and 184.1 and 272.0 l/day (P<0.001), respectively, in extensive/intermediate metabolizers. CONCLUSIONS: Perhexiline's pharmacokinetics exhibit significant enantioselectivity in CYP2D6 extensive/intermediate and poor metabolizers, with both enantiomers displaying polymorphic and saturable metabolism via CYP2D6. Clinical use of rac-perhexiline may be improved by developing specific enantiomer target plasma concentration ranges.

Individualized drug and dose: the clinical pharmacologist's calling or curse?

1. The role of the clinical pharmacologist is to promote the rational, safe and effective use of medicines. This revolves around the notion of variability, between and within patients and between and within drugs, in terms of both pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Ideal therapeutics involves tailoring the drug and its dosing to the individual patient, taking into account this variability. 2. In the 25 years of my membership of the Australasian Society of Clinical and Experimental Pharmacologists and Toxicologists, three themes have dominated my research: (i) drugs and breast feeding; (ii) aminoglycoside dosing; and (iii) pharmacogenetics. In all these, the research has been orientated towards identifying factors involved in variability and working towards dose individualization based on the understanding of these factors. 3. Our model for predicting drug concentrations in milk has assisted not only in estimating the safety of drug ingestion via breast milk, but also in the understanding of the processes involved in drug transfer. 4. The aminoglycoside studies have assisted in the understanding of the basis behind extended interval dosing, leading to a model for dose prediction that is widely used, especially in Australasia. 5. Pharmacogenetics is a field widely acclaimed as having a huge future in terms of individualization of drug therapy. Our early studies in this area lend only cautious support to this optimism.

Concentration-time profile for perhexiline and hydroxyperhexiline in patients at steady state.

AIM: To define inter- and intraday variability in plasma perhexiline concentrations, time-to-maximum plasma perhexiline concentration and variability in the ratio of hydroxyperhexiline to parent perhexiline concentrations over the course of the day in patients at steady state. METHODS: Eight blood samples were taken over a 24-h period from 12 adult patients already taking perhexiline for the treatment of angina pectoris. These patients were assumed to be at steady state, having taken the same dose of perhexiline for more than 4 weeks and having no changes made to other drug therapy that might have affected plasma perhexiline concentrations (especially drugs that interfere with CYP2D6). Perhexiline was assayed by HPLC/FL. The percentage increase over baseline concentration was determined for each patient for both perhexiline and hydroxyperhexiline. RESULTS: Trough plasma perhexiline concentrations from two patients were below the limit of quantification of the assay (0.05 mg l-1) and thus were excluded from the analysis. The greatest mean percentage increase in plasma perhexiline concentration over the day was 21% (95%CI 9%, 33%, range -19% to 45%) which occurred 6 h postdose. The greatest mean percentage increase in plasma hydroxyperhexiline concentration was 10.8% (95%CI -5.3%, 26.9%, range -13% to 60%) which occurred 4 h postdose. However individual patients demonstrated > 60% intraday variability in perhexiline concentrations which was not related to the concomitant use of drugs that affect CYP2D6 activity. Changes in random plasma perhexiline concentration which are attributed to changes in concomitant drug therapy should be supported by additional kinetic data. Inter-day variability in plasma perhexiline concentration as determined by the ratio of C24 : C0 was small (mean 0.90, 95%CI 0.77, 1.03) which supports C0 as the best sampling time for perhexiline concentration monitoring. The variability in C24 : C0 for hydroxyperhexiline concentrations was smaller (mean 0.96, 95%CI 0.81, 1.11). Variability in the ratio of plasma concentrations of hydroxyperhexiline to perhexiline over the day was also small. The ratio of plasma hydroxyperhexiline to perhexiline concentration over the day fell within a narrow range for all subjects with 95% confidence intervals being < 15% for eight patients and < 25% for the remaining patient. This suggests that formation of the metabolite occurs rapidly and may be presystemic. It also supports the calculation of the hydroxyperhexiline : perhexiline ratio (in patients at steady state) on blood samples taken at any time during the dosing interval. CONCLUSIONS: The within-day variability in plasma perhexiline concentrations was small. While C0 is probably the best time for therapeutic drug monitoring purposes, it is not unreasonable to use samples drawn at any time during the dosing interval. The therapeutic range used in this hospital (0.15-0.6 mg l-1) was devised from earlier work using 4 h postdose blood sampling which is close to the 'peak' concentration and a mean of 16% higher than C0 in this study. This increase is probably clinically insignificant and a different C0 range is therefore not warranted.

Pharmacokinetics of the antianginal agent perhexiline: relationship between metabolic ratio and steady-state dose.

AIMS: 1) To develop an estimate of oral clearance (CL(Px)/F) for the antianginal agent perhexiline based on the ratio of cis-OH-perhexiline metabolite/parent perhexiline plasma concentrations at steady-state (C(OHPx,ss)/C(Px,ss)). 2) To determine whether the ratio measured in the first fortnight of treatment (C(i)(OHPx)/C(i)(Px)) may be used to guide patient dosing with perhexiline, a drug with a narrow therapeutic index, long half-life and saturable metabolism via CYP2D6. METHODS: Two retrospective studies were conducted reviewing patient records and data obtained from routine monitoring of plasma perhexiline and cis-OH-perhexiline concentrations. RESULTS: Study 1 (n=70). At steady-state, the frequency distributions of CL(Px)/F and C(OHPx,ss)/C(Px,ss) were consistent with CYP2D6 metabolism. Putative poor metabolizers (approximately 8%) were identified by CL(Px)/F< or =50 ml min(-1) or C(OHPx,ss)/C(Px,ss)< or =0.3. A group of patients with CL(Px)/F> or =950 ml min(-1) may have been ultra-rapid metabolizers. In this group, the high CL(Px)/F values suggest extensive first-pass metabolism and poor bioavailability. In patients with therapeutic plasma perhexiline concentrations (0.15-0.60 mg l(-1)), the variability in dose appeared directly proportional to CL(Px)/F (r2=0.741, P<0.0001). Study 2 (n=23). Using C(i)(OHPx)/C(i)(Px) patients were tentatively identified as poor, extensive and ultra-rapid metabolizers, with CL(Px)/F of 23-72, 134-868 and 947-1462 ml min(-1), respectively, requiring doses of 10-25, 100-250 and 300-500 mg day(-1), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The cis-OH-perhexiline/perhexiline concentration ratio may be useful for optimizing individual patient treatment with the antianginal agent perhexiline.

Population pharmacokinetics of perhexiline from very sparse, routine monitoring data.

Using NONMEM, the population pharmacokinetics of perhexiline were studied in 88 patients (34 F, 54 M) who were being treated for refractory angina. Their mean +/- SD (range) age was 75 +/- 9.9 years (46-92), and the length of perhexiline treatment was 56 +/- 77 weeks (0.3-416). The sampling time after a dose was 14.1 +/- 21.4 hours (0.5-200), and the perhexiline plasma concentrations were 0.39 +/- 0.32 mg/L (0.03-1.56). A one-compartment model with first-order absorption was fitted to the data using the first-order (FO) approximation. The best model contained 2 subpopulations (obtained via the $MIXTURE subroutine) of 77 subjects (subgroup A) and 11 subjects (subgroup B) that had typical values for clearance (CL/F) of 21.8 L/h and 2.06 L/h, respectively. The volumes of distribution (V/F) were 1470 L and 260 L, respectively, which suggested a reduction in presystemic metabolism in subgroup B. The interindividual variability (CV%) was modeled logarithmically and for CL/F ranged from 69.1% (subgroup A) to 86.3% (subgroup B). The interindividual variability in V/F was 111%. The residual variability unexplained by the population model was 28.2%. These results confirm and extend the existing pharmacokinetic data on perhexiline, especially the bimodal distribution of CL/F manifested via an inherited deficiency in hepatic and extrahepatic CYP2D6 activity.

Interaction of serotonin re-uptake inhibitors with perhexiline.

OBJECTIVE: To report two cases of perhexiline toxicity associated with selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor (SSRI) treatment. CLINICAL PICTURE: Serum perhexiline concentrations progressively increased after a 69-year-old man was concurrently prescribed paroxetine for the treatment of depression. An 84-year-old woman was admitted to hospital with severe, symptomatic perhexiline toxicity associated with fluoxetine treatment. TREATMENT: In both cases, perhexiline therapy was suspended and treatment with SSRIs was withdrawn. OUTCOME: Serum perhexiline concentrations declined following the withdrawal of paroxetine in one case, but in the case of the second patient perhexiline concentrations were extremely slow to decrease, resulting in referral to a rehabilitative care unit for convalescence. CONCLUSIONS: Serum perhexiline concentrations may be elevated during concurrent treatment with SSRIs, potentially resulting in severe toxicity.

Inhibition by perhexiline of oxidative phosphorylation and the beta-oxidation of fatty acids: possible role in pseudoalcoholic liver lesions.

In an attempt to better understand the mechanisms for pseudoalcoholic liver lesions in human beings, we determined the effects of perhexiline on mitochondrial functions in mice and rats. A first series of studies suggested that protonated perhexiline entered mouse mitochondria along the mitochondrial membrane potential. Release of a proton in the mitochondrial matrix led to uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation, and accumulation of perhexiline inhibited complexes I and II of the respiratory chain, decreased ATP formation in vitro and decreased the mitochondrial beta-oxidation of long-, medium- and short-chain fatty acids in vitro and in vivo in mice. In cultured rat hepatocytes, exposure for 24 hr to 25 mumol/L perhexiline markedly decreased hepatocellular ATP and cell viability. Exposure to 5 mumol/L perhexiline did not modify ATP and viability but decreased the beta-oxidation of palmitic acid uniformly labeled with carbon 14 by 38%, increased hepatocyte triglyceride levels by 98% and produced microvesicular steatosis after 72 hr of culture. We conclude that perhexiline is concentrated inside mitochondria, where it inhibits both oxidative phosphorylation and the mitochondrial beta-oxidation of fatty acids. These effects may contribute to the development of necrosis, steatosis and possibly certain other pseudoalcoholic liver lesions in human beings.

Perhexilene: effects on hepatic lysosomal function in rats.

1. Perhexilene, a long-acting anti-anginal drug, can induce adverse effects on the liver which may be dose-dependent. At high concentrations, perhexilene causes marked morphological changes in hepatocyte lysosomes. The current study examined the effect of 'therapeutic' doses of perhexilene on hepatic lysosomal function, particularly the biliary release of lysosomal enzymes, using an isolated perfused rat liver (IPRL) model. 2. Pharmacokinetic studies demonstrated that clearance of single doses of perhexilene by the perfused rat liver was dose-dependent and established a 'therapeutic' dose of 0.6 mg using the IPRL. A 5 day pretreatment regimen of 20 mg/kg per day was shown to produce 'therapeutic' perhexilene concentrations of 150-210 ng/ml. 3. At perhexilene concentrations equating the 'therapeutic' range in man, the major effect of perhexilene was at the biliary pole of the hepatocyte. In 5 day pretreatment dose studies, lysosomal enzyme excretion into bile was markedly increased. In single dose studies, the increase in biliary lysosomal enzyme output partially reflected an increase in bile water production which was not seen with the 5 day pretreatment regimen. Hepatic and perfusate lysosomal enzyme activities were not affected. 4. This selective effect of perhexilene on hepatocyte-to-bile lysosomal excretion may reflect intracellular lysosomal drug localization.