Past, Present and Future: Combining habitat suitability and future landcover simulation for long-term conservation management of Indian rhino.

The Indian rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) is susceptible to habitat change and fragmentation due to illegal logging, rapid urbanization and non-forest use and therefore were confined in to isolated areas throughout its distribution. The present study was conducted in Gorumara landscape which is composed of two protected areas (PAs) viz., Gorumara National Park (GNP) and Chapramari Wildlife Sanctuary. Both PAs were separated by a territorial forest range (Bridge Area), which is between both the PAs and under high anthropogenic disturbance. The study was designed to understand the impacts of landcover change on habitat suitability of R. unicornis in a multi-temporal scenario from 1998 to 2018 using ensemble approach and also to simulate the future habitat suitability for 2028. Our result suggests a significant increase in woodland cover inside the PAs, whereas the grassland cover has increased outside the PA in territorial range. We found a strong positive association of R. unicornis with grasslands. The Comparison of the future suitability model of 2028 with that of 2018 indicates a substantial increase in rhino suitable area by 13% in the territorial forest. Hence, bringing the territorial forest into the PA network, will be a crucial step to increase the fodder availability and better connectivity for the long term survival of the species.

Serum protein electrophoresis in healthy and injured southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum).

Investigation of globulin fractions by serum protein electrophoresis (SPE) is the first step towards evaluation of the proteome in the southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum). Furthermore, identification of changes in globulins in animals with poaching and other injuries can guide discovery of potentially useful biomarkers of inflammation. The aim of this study was to develop reference intervals for agarose gel SPE in healthy white rhinoceros and to compare these serum protein electrophoresis results to those from animals with tissue trauma. Reference intervals for total serum protein and agarose gel electrophoretic albumin and globulin fractions were generated using serum samples from 49 healthy free-ranging adult white rhinoceros. A standardised gating system together with identification of specific proteins by mass spectrometry aided in fraction identification. Six globulin fractions were identified: α1a, α1b, α2, ß1, ß2 and γ. Reference intervals were generated for total serum protein (76-111 g/L), albumin (10-27 g/L) and globulin fractions (α1a: 1.6-3.2 g/L; α1b: 1.7-3.6 g/L; α2: 16.1-26.6 g/L; ß1: 6.6-18.2 g/L; ß2: 11.8-30.4 g/L; γ: 10.4-23.1 g/L; albumin: globulin ratio: 0.12-0.39). Results were compared to those from 30 animals with various degrees and chronicities of tissue trauma. Wounded animals had lower concentrations of total serum protein, albumin, total globulin, α and ß1 globulins, lower percentages of α2 and ß1 globulins, and higher percentages of ß2 and γ globulins. These protein changes are similar to those seen in human patients with wounds rather than classic acute phase or chronic inflammatory responses.

First insights into the vocal repertoire of infant and juvenile Southern white rhinoceros.

Describing vocal repertoires represents an essential step towards gaining an overview about the complexity of acoustic communication in a given species. The analysis of infant vocalisations is essential for understanding the development and usage of species-specific vocalisations, but is often underrepresented, especially in species with long inter-birth intervals such as the white rhinoceros. Thus, this study aimed for the first time to characterise the infant and juvenile vocal repertoire of the Southern white rhinoceros and to relate these findings to the adult vocal repertoire. The behaviour of seven mother-reared white rhinoceros calves (two males, five females) and one hand-reared calf (male), ranging from one month to four years, was simultaneously audio and video-taped at three zoos. Normally reared infants and juveniles uttered four discriminable call types (Whine, Snort, Threat, and Pant) that were produced in different behavioural contexts. All call types were also uttered by the hand-reared calf. Call rates of Whines, but not of the other call types, decreased with age. These findings provide the first evidence that infant and juvenile rhinoceros utter specific call types in distinct contexts, even if they grow up with limited social interaction with conspecifics. By comparing our findings with the current literature on vocalisations of adult white rhinoceros and other solitary rhinoceros species, we discuss to which extent differences in the social lifestyle across species affect acoustic communication in mammals.

Reproductive performance parameters in a large population of game-ranched white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum simum).

The population of free-roaming white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum) is under serious threat. Captive breeding of this species is therefore becoming more important, but this is challenging and often not successful. Obtaining reproductive reference values is a crucial aspect of improving these breeding results. In this study performed between 2008 and 2016, reproductive performance was analysed in 1,354 animals kept in a 8000 hectares game-ranched environment. Descriptive statistics of this captive population showed an average annual herd growth (%) of 7 .0±0.1 (min -9 -max 15). Average calving rates were calculated as an annual calving rate of 20% and biennial calving rate of 37% adult females calving per year. Females had a median age of 83.2 months at first calving (IQR 72.9-110.7) and inter-calving intervals of 29.2 (IQR 24.6-34.8) months. Furthermore, translocations of animals did not interfere with reproductive success in terms of inter-calving periods or age at first calving. Multivariate models showed a clear seasonal calving pattern with a significant increase of the number of calvings during December-April when compared to April-December. Our results did not show any significant skewed progeny sex ratios. Weather observations showed no significant influence of rain or season on sex ratios of the calves.

Disruption of Rhino Demography by Poachers May Lead to Population Declines in Kruger National Park, South Africa.

The onslaught on the World's rhinoceroses continues despite numerous initiatives aimed at curbing it. When losses due to poaching exceed birth rates, declining rhino populations result. We used previously published estimates and growth rates for black rhinos (2008) and white rhinos (2010) together with known poaching trends at the time to predict population sizes and poaching rates in Kruger National Park, South Africa for 2013. Kruger is a stronghold for the south-eastern black rhino and southern white rhino. Counting rhinos on 878 blocks 3x3 km in size using helicopters, estimating availability bias and collating observer and detectability biases allowed estimates using the Jolly's estimator. The exponential escalation in number of rhinos poached per day appears to have slowed. The black rhino estimate of 414 individuals (95% confidence interval: 343-487) was lower than the predicted 835 individuals (95% CI: 754-956). The white rhino estimate of 8,968 individuals (95% CI: 8,394-9,564) overlapped with the predicted 9,417 individuals (95% CI: 7,698-11,183). Density- and rainfall-dependent responses in birth- and death rates of white rhinos provide opportunities to offset anticipated poaching effects through removals of rhinos from high density areas to increase birth and survival rates. Biological management of rhinos, however, need complimentary management of the poaching threat as present poaching trends predict detectable declines in white rhino abundances by 2018. Strategic responses such as anti-poaching that protect supply from illegal harvesting, reducing demand, and increasing supply commonly require crime network disruption as a first step complimented by providing options for alternative economies in areas abutting protected areas.

Ultrasonographic measurement of fetal growth parameters over three successive pregnancies in a captive Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus).

This study was conducted to establish representative curves that allow evaluation of fetal growth and estimation of gestational age from measurement of fetal structures by ultrasound in Malayan tapirs (Tapirus indicus). Three pregnancies (i.e. 3 fetuses) were examined in one female Malayan tapir. Transabdominal ultrasonographic examination was performed without anesthesia from 79 ± 8 days to 281 ± 48 days (mean ± S.D.) post mating. To assess fetal growth attempts were made to measure biparietal diameter (BPD), head length (HL), thorax diameter A (TDA), thorax height A (THA), thorax diameter B (TDB), thorax height B (THB), abdomen diameter (AD), abdomen height (AH), humerus length (HUL) and Crown rump length (CRL). The value of each parameter as an estimator of gestational age was assessed by ease of observation and the length of time the parameter was measurable throughout gestation. The most precise predictors for gestational age in this study were BPD and CRL (weeks 10-20 of gestation), as well as AD and AH (weeks 14-43 of gestation). The parameters TDB, THB and HUL (weeks 15-41 of gestation) gave almost as good predictions. Fetal viability was assessed by identifying a fetal heartbeat and movement. All pregnancies resulted in normal deliveries and healthy offspring. The ultrasound examination was well tolerated by the female. The gestation lengths (399 ± 3 days) were within reported ranges. The serial transabdominal ultrasound, without the need for anesthesia, was an effective method to evaluate fetal growth, development and well being in a Malayan tapir.

Sexual maturation in the Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis).

To help save the Sumatran rhino from extinction, the captive breeding program must capitalize on each rhino's reproductive lifespan. Doing so requires knowing when calves are sexually mature. The goal of this study was to monitor physiological changes associated with sexual maturation in two captive born calves (one male and one female) to determine the approximate age of maturity for both sexes of this species. Fecal testosterone metabolites were monitored in the male calf from 6 months to 7 years of age, and fecal pregnane metabolites were measured in the female calf from 6 months to 5.5 years of age. In addition, rectal ultrasonography was employed to monitor changes in ovarian activity from 2 to 5.5 years of age. The male calf's fecal testosterone concentrations reached levels comparable to those detected in samples from adult males when he was 6-6.5 years of age. The first pre-ovulatory sized follicle was observed on the ovaries of the female calf when she was 4.75 years old, but fecal pregnane metabolite concentrations only reached maximum mean concentrations and variability when she was 5-5.5 years of age. Results from this study indicate that male and female Sumatran rhino calves are sexually mature at 6-6.5 and 5-5.5 years of age, respectively.

Neonatal milestones, behavior and growth rate of Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) calves born and bred in captivity.

The birth of Sumatran rhino calves at the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden offered a unique opportunity to study early development and cow-calf behavior in this elusive, critically endangered species. Study goals were to: (1) record developmental milestones of newborn calves; (2) characterize cow and calf behavior during the first year following birth; (3) compare trends in the behavioral development of a male vs. female calf; and (4) record weight gain and footprint size throughout the first year. In addition to recording eight neonatal milestones, more than 450 hr of behavioral data were collected on each of the two calves (one male and one female) and their dam during the first 12 months of life. Neonatal milestones were achieved within 24 hr of birth with the exception of first defecation, which occurred at 16-18 days. Although nursing bouts decreased slightly in the second half of the year (from once every 90 min to once every 2 hr), they continued to occur frequently throughout the day and night. Therefore, calves grew rapidly from approximately 33 kg at birth to 400 kg at 12 months. Average daily weight gain for the first week was approximately 2.0 kg, whereas average daily weight gain for the remaining 12 months was slight (<1 kg) and did not differ between calves. Eating and resting occupied 70-80% of the Sumatran rhino cow and calves' time and no gender biases in either maternal investment or developmental parameters were noted. Finally, footprint measurements proved valuable for estimating calf age.

Phylogeny, life history and the timing of molar crown formation in two archaic ungulates, Meniscotherium and Phenacodus (Mammalia, 'Condylarthra').

The condylarths, or archaic ungulates, are a paraphyletic mammalian group including a number of fossil taxa whose relationships are unresolved. Included are two genera from the Paleocene and Eocene of North America, Meniscotherium and Phenacodus. Some workers place both genera in the family Phenacodontidae, while others exclude the highly dentally derived Meniscotherium. In this study, we use growth increments in histological thin sections to examine the timing of crown formation in five molars of Meniscotherium and one each of Phenacodusintermedius and Phenacodus trilobatus. We also use perikymata counts on an additional six molars of Meniscotherium. Although estimated body mass and molar dimensions in Meniscotherium are smaller than in either species of Phenacodus, molar formation times are longer, ranging from 0.71 to 1.44 years. Both Phenacodus molars take less than a year to form. Crown extension rates, the rate at which the crown grows in height, are as low as 3-15 microm per day in Meniscotherium, but range from 13 to 54 microm per day in Phenacodus. Although striae periodicities and daily enamel secretion rate are similar in both genera, the differences in the crown extension rate and overall timing of crown formation suggest differences in life histories and raise questions about the phylogenetic relationship of the two genera.

Structure of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) horn investigated by X-ray computed tomography and histology with implications for growth and external form.

The nasal and frontal horns of two individuals of Ceratotherium simum were examined by x-ray computed tomography (CT scanning), gross observation of sectioned horn, and light microscopy of histological sections of the horn tissue. CT scans of both sets of horns reveal a periodic banding pattern that is evident upon gross observation of sections as darker bands of tissue. The overlap of these bands in both histological and CT slices suggests the presence of both a photoabsorbent component (melanin) and a radiodense component (calcium phosphate salts, most likely hydroxyapatite or octocalcium phosphate). The distribution of these two components in the horns is hypothesized to contribute to the differential wear patterns that produce the characteristic sweeping conical shape of rhinoceros horn from what otherwise (in the absence of wear and UV exposure) would be cylindrical blocks of constantly growing cornified papillary epidermis. Although extant rhinocerotids are unique in possessing a massive entirely keratinous horn that approximates the functions of keratin-and-bone horns such as those of bovid artiodactyls, the tissue structures that make up the horn are strikingly convergent with other examples of papillary cornified epidermis found in horses, artiodactyls, cetaceans, and birds.

Morphology of adult white donkeys of Asinara.

The phenotype of the Asinara white donkey has the following somatic characteristics: white coat, pink skin and glabrous areas, straight profile, body not very rounded on account of relatively slight muscular development, large head, eyes with irises of a pink-blue colour, short thin neck, not very pronounced withers, straight, average length dorsolumbar region, prominent angular rump higher than the withers, short chest, wide hind quarters, well developed abdomen, short sturdy limbs, light-coloured hooves. The somatometric measurements and the zoometric indexes show small-sized subjects with a hardy bone structure, of compact build with morphological homogeneity between the sexes. The donkeys are of the mesomorph type, more developed lengthwise than in height.

The thickness, shape and arrangement of elastic fibres within the nuchal ligament from various animal species.

As shown by statistical evaluation carried out within various animal species (e.g. ruminants, equids, carnivores and proboscidates) the thickness of elastic fibres of the nuchal ligament is a specific character, i.e. unrelated to the somatic size of taxonomically different specimens. On the whole, ruminants are characterized by thicker elastic fibres than those from equids and carnivores. Moreover, within ruminants a correlation between the thickness of elastic fibres and body size has consistently been found. However, this condition occurs only when comparison between zoologically related species is drawn. During postnatal growth clearcut structural changes were brought to light, represented by the following phenomena simultaneously taking place: a) increase in thickness and lenght of preexisting elastic fibres; b) a progressive increase in the number of fibre splittings as well as of collaterals given off by individual fibres along their extension; c) neoformation of elastic fibres, and their addition to preexisting ones. In the bovines, already at six months of postnatal life, the elastic fibres of larger caliber have attained their full size.