Understanding of Factors Associated with Reporting to the Police, Helping Seeking, and Adopting in Self-protection among Stalking Victims: A Latent Class Analysis.

Victims of stalking use multiple help-seeking behaviors including reporting their experiences to the police, obtaining a restraining order, blocking communication, and relying on informal social networks like friends, family, or therapists. The goal of this study is to, first, identify distinct subgroups of stalking victims based on their help-seeking behaviors. Next, we identify the direct effect of sex, victim-offender relationship, and offense severity on class membership. Finally, we include negative emotions as a mediating effect. Using the 2016 National Crime Victimization Survey's Supplemental Victimization Survey data, latent class analysis was utilized to identify class membership among 1,459 stalking victims. The results indicate three groups: passive help-seekers, informal help-seekers, and active help-seekers. We found that females are more likely to be assigned to the active or informal group and these two groups appear to experience more severe stalking behaviors compared to the passive group. Specifically, victims were less likely to ask for help actively and ask family, friends, and non-professional people for help for whom stalking took place by other/unable to identify individuals. Victims whose stalkers had a criminal record, whose stalkers threatened themselves or others, as well as who suffered stalking lasting for months and the most often were more likely to ask for help actively and ask family, friends, and non-professional people for help. The significance of victims' perceptions of severity of both groups is only partially mediated by negative emotions.

Las víctimas del acoso utilizan diversos comportamientos de búsqueda de ayuda, como denunciar los hechos a la policía, conseguir una orden de alejamiento, bloquear la comunicación o confiar en las redes sociales informales como amigos, familia o terapeutas. El objetivo del estudio es en primer lugar reconocer distintos subgrupos de víctimas de acoso en función de sus comportamientos de búsqueda de ayuda. A continuación observamos el efecto directo en la pertenencia al grupo del sexo, la relación víctima-agresor y la gravedad del delito. Por último, abordamos el efecto mediador de las emociones negativas. Utilizando los datos de la encuesta suplementaria de victimización de la Encuesta Nacional de Delitos de Victimización de 2016 nos servimos del análisis de clases latentes para analizar la afiliación de clase en 1,459 víctimas de acoso. Los resultados muestran tres grupos: buscadores de ayuda pasivos, informales y activos. Resultó que es más probable que las mujeres sean asignadas al grupo activo o informal y que estos dos grupos parecen experimentar comportamientos de acoso más graves en comparación con el grupo pasivo. En concreto era menos probable que las víctimas pidieran ayuda activamente y a la familia, amigos y personas no profesionales que habían sufrido acoso por parte de otras personas incapaces de identificar. Era más probable que las víctimas cuyos acosadores tenían antecedentes penales y les habían acosado a ellos o a otras personas y cuyo acoso había durado meses y más a menudo pidieran ayuda activa y también a la familia, amigos y personas no profesionales. La importancia de cómo percibían la gravedad ambos grupos solo estaba mediatizada en parte por las emociones negativas.

The Impact of Stalking and Its Predictors: Characterizing the Needs of Stalking Victims.

Victims of stalking suffer severe and varied impacts requiring assessment and treatment. Research to inform support is limited. This study examines a national sample of stalking victims to identify the types and prevalence of impact reported and the predictors of impact. A secondary analysis of 258 stalking cases reported to a stalking charity was conducted. Four categories of victim reported impact were coded; psychological and substance abuse, physical health, practical impact on life, and impact on others. Stalking duration, severity, the diversity of stalking behaviors, and the relationship between the victim and perpetrator were investigated as predictors of impact. In all, 48 types of impact were identified with victims experiencing an average of four types. Psychological impact was the most prevalent (91.5%). Several new forms of impact were identified including a variety of impacts on persons known to the victim (e.g., children, friends) in 35.3% of the sample. Increased diversity of stalking behavior was predictive of impact in all models (explaining 11% of the variance in total impact scores), except for physical impact which was not analyzed due to low prevalence. Stalking impact was prevalent and varied, suggesting that victims (and potentially those close to them) require trauma-informed support from clinicians. Future research should include the development of a stalking impact index to improve the consistency of research and clinical assessment of need.

Prevalence and Psychosocial Impacts of Stalking on Mental Health Professionals: A Systematic Review.

Research examining the prevalence and impacts of stalking on mental health professionals (MHPs) has grown over the last two decades. Yet only one previous review has been undertaken examining impacts on staff and focusing on clients as stalkers, with prevalence estimated between 10% and 13%. This systematic review sought to assess prevalence of stalking, and associated impacts and methods of coping reported by MHPs, irrespective of perpetrator type. The search included all healthcare professional groups working in a mental health setting, reported in English or with available translation. Secondary searches were conducted through references cited in primary papers. Of the 7,060 papers identified in five databases, 11 peer-reviewed papers met rigorous inclusion criteria and were quality appraised. Reviewed studies reported prevalence rates between 10.2% and 50%, with higher quality papers reporting a narrower band, 13.9% and 14.3%. However, substantial variability in stalking definitions, and quality of methodology precluded precise prevalence estimation. Participants within the included studies disclosed significant adverse impacts on confidence and competence at work as a consequence of their experiences. Staff invoked substantial workplace and lifestyle changes to mitigate impacts of stalking. However, studies revealed staff disclosed stalking by perpetrators other than clients, notably colleagues and intimate partners, as often or more frequently than by clients. Limitations of the included research and future directions are discussed.

Factors Associated with Stalking Duration Among a Nationally Representative Sample: Results from the 2010 National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey.

The current study examined the duration of stalking episodes among a nationally representative sample. Analyses of the National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey estimated if the victim-perpetrator relationship and other types of victimization experienced were associated with (a) if the stalking episode lasted over a year (N = 1,509) and (b) the length of stalking episodes, in days, for episodes <1 year (N = 506). Findings indicate coercive control was associated with higher odds the stalking episode lasted over a year and increased the length of episodes lasting <1 year. The intersection of stalking and coercive control is discussed.

Intimate Partner Violence and Health Conditions Among U.S. Adults-National Intimate Partner Violence Survey, 2010-2012.

INTRODUCTION: Few studies of intimate partner violence and health outcomes include multiple forms of intimate partner victimization, so this paper sought to examine health associations with intimate partner violence (IPV), including sexual, physical, stalking, and psychological forms, as well as polyvictimization. METHODS: Data are from the 2010-2012 National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, an on-going national random-digit-dial telephone survey of U.S. adults. There were 41,174 respondents. Logistic regression was used to compute prevalence ratios for any IPV, adjusted for demographics and non-IPV victimization. For individual forms of IPV, prevalence ratios were further adjusted for other forms of IPV. Tests for linear trend in poly-victimization were performed. RESULTS: Any IPV was associated with all health conditions for both sexes with a few exceptions for males. Female penetrative sexual victimization and male stalking victimization were associated with the most health conditions. For each health condition, a significant linear trend indicated that as the number of forms of IPV experienced increased, prevalence of each health condition increased, with a few exceptions for males. CONCLUSIONS: It is important for service providers to screen for multiple forms of IPV, including psychological aggression, because individual forms or polyvictimization may have unique and cumulative health effects.

Examining Cyberstalking Perpetration and Victimization: A Scoping Review.

In recent years the body of literature on cyberstalking has expanded rapidly. The present work aimed to summarize the current state of the literature on cyberstalking perpetration and victimization in a scoping review. Forty-one quantitative and qualitative studies that examined variables relating to cyberstalking victimization and perpetration were collated. Following the methodology of Arksey and O'Malley (2005), an in-depth thematic analysis of the articles was undertaken. Prevalence of victimization and perpetration rates were compared and key themes synthesized. Despite examining similar young adult populations, the prevalence of victimization was found to range considerably from 0.7% (Reyns & Engelbrecht, 2010) to 85.2% (Strawhun et al., 2013) across studies. Themes were divided into two overarching classifications, factors relating to victimization and factors relating to perpetration. Deviant peer association, low self-control, previous harassment experiences and personality traits were some of the factors most frequently examined in relation to perpetration; whilst online exposure, online disclosure and guardianship were some of the factors most frequently examined in relation to victimization. Within these themes, deviant peer association and low self-control were found to consistently correlate with an increase in both cyberstalking victimization and perpetration. Guardianship and confidence online demonstrated inconsistent results. This review has summarized what is currently known and has been validated within cyberstalking research pertaining to victimization and perpetration, and has identified gaps and potential areas of future development.

Work Harassment and Resource Loss Among (Ex)partner Stalking Victims.

Prior research suggests that economic abuse and work sabotage are common tactics for abusers and (ex)partner stalkers. This study examines the context and timing (i.e., during the relationship or during separation) of work harassment among women stalked by abusive (ex)partners among victims who did (n=271) and who did not (n=302) experience work losses (significant problems at work or loss of work due to the abuse/stalking) and whether work losses and non-work related resource losses were associated with current mental health symptoms. Results showed that almost half of the women in the study reported they experienced work losses because of their abusive (ex)partner. Women with work losses experienced more work harassment particularly during periods of separation. Women who experienced work losses also experienced more work harassment, separation attempts, economic control, coercive control, physical and sexual abuse, higher fear levels, and a higher number of non-work related resource losses compared to women who did not report experiencing work losses. Women with work losses experienced more symptoms of current depression, anxiety, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Further, in the multivariate analysis, non-work related resource losses were significantly and uniquely associated with current mental health symptoms. In conclusion, women being stalked by abusive (ex)partners are at significant risk of resource losses, and those losses have long term impacts on mental health suggesting that safety planning for stalking victims should include plans to protect resources as well as physical safety.

Examining Factors Associated with Stalking-Related Fears Among Men and Women Stalked by Male and Female Acquaintances.

This study examines experiences of acquaintance stalking victims (n = 389), recruited from a community sample, by victim and stalker gender and explores factors associated with three measures of fear (fear of harm, perceived capability of stalker to harm, and fear of significant life impact). There were five main findings from this study: (a) although research suggests ex-partner stalkers are the most threatening, assaultive, and harassing stalkers, particularly for women, this study shows that a significant number of acquaintance stalking victims experience high levels of fear, threats, life interference, and assault; (b) women had higher stalking-related fear levels and a greater belief that their stalker was capable of harming them regardless of stalker gender, while men stalked by females were least concerned about harm; (c) close to one-quarter of victims had one unknown background factor and one-third indicated not knowing about two or more background factors suggesting variation in the level of victim knowledge about acquaintance stalkers; (d) the number of threats, stalker history of violence to others, the belief that the stalker does not care about severe consequences, and a greater number of unknown stalker background factors were associated with higher stalking-related fear levels and an increased perception that the stalker was capable of harm; and, (e) higher concern about a significant life impact from the stalking was associated with forced confrontations, believing the stalker wanted revenge, victim vulnerability, proxy stalking, and technology facilitated stalking. Future research is needed to better understand the dynamics of acquaintance stalking, particularly with regard to how close or distant the stalker was to the victim. Considering victim and stalker gender dynamics in acquaintance stalking may be important for safety planning and risk assessment.

"You Want to Catch the Biggest Thing Going in the Ocean": A Qualitative Analysis of Intimate Partner Stalking.

This study employs a qualitative phenomenological exploration of the "lived" experiences of male intimate partner stalking (IPS) perpetrators serving a custodial sentence in the United Kingdom for an offense related to intimate partner violence (IPV). The purpose of this study is to capture the nature and complexity of the experiences of the pathway to IPS from the perspective of the perpetrator. The study seeks to provide a unique understanding of how IPS perpetrators attribute meaning to their behavior, illuminating the underpinning cognitive characteristics and emotions that play a role in their behavior. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven men with a history of IPS behavior. The resultant transcripts were analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA). Five superordinate themes reflecting participants' experiences were identified: (a) "The quest for attention and affection creating connection,"(b) "Conflicted identity and extremes of self," (c) "My life, a film set," (d) "Gameplaying: One step ahead," and (e) "Severed connections, changing the Gameplay." The findings are presented in relation to the existing literature and theoretical frameworks which seek to explain stalking perpetration. The analysis provides a greater understanding of men who have engaged in IPS behavior, demonstrating how hearing the perspective of the perpetrator has value in informing theory and intervention. The study has provided valuable insight into the cognitive characteristics of this population and a rich understanding of the profiles of men who have engaged in IPS behavior. Implications for forensic practice, policy, and research are outlined, and recommendations for future research and overall limitations are discussed.

Stalking Victimization and Emotional Consequences: A Cross-Cultural Comparison Between American and Spanish University Students.

This paper entails a comparative study between a country that has criminalized stalking for almost three decades (the U.S.) and a nation that just recently outlawed the phenomenon (Spain). Employing a sample of American and Spanish university students, we examined the prevalence and types of stalking behaviors and victims' emotional responses to their victimization. We also explored whether experiencing a particular category of stalking behaviors (i.e., surveillance and approach stalking) triggers specific emotional responses similarly among American and Spanish victims. We found more than two-thirds (36%) of the Spanish students (n = 638) and almost half (48%) of the American students (n = 411) reported that they have experienced the unwanted or intrusive behaviors included in our study. We also found relative to Spanish victims, American victims were significantly more likely to encounter approach stalking and report feeling anxious, angry, depressed, sick, and suicidal as a result of their victimization. Implications of our findings and directions for future research are discussed.

Stalkers: Specialists Versus Generalists.

AbstractIt is known that many domestic violence (DV) offenders also commit violent and nonviolent offences that are not domestic in nature. Stalking frequently evolves from DV contexts. The present study used police data to explore (i) the extent to which stalking offenders in Western Australia specialize in stalking, (ii) the frequency of involvement in DV offending by stalking offenders, and (iii) the types of offences that co-occur with stalking offences. The dataset covered 404 individuals who were identified by the Western Australia Police Force as the offender for a stalking offence between January 1st, 2003 and July 30th, 2017. Only a minority of the offenders specialized in stalking, with the majority offending in other ways against the index victim and also offending against others via a broad range of offences. Although less than 10% were recorded as having carried out domestic assaults, more than half had broken restraining orders. Like DV offenders, the stalkers in this sample were largely generalist offenders. It was not clear, however, what proportion of offences against the same index victim were directly related to stalking. Stalking is a course of conduct that often involves individual acts that may be offences in themselves. What is clearer is the finding that for many stalkers, stalking forms part of a wider pattern of antisocial activity. Those stalkers who do not specialize in stalking may be less likely to benefit from intervention efforts that are focused solely on stalking.

Prevalence of Stalking Among Justice Professionals in Portugal.

Despite the growing interest from researchers' in recent years, stalking is a phenomenon of difficult operationalization within the scientific community. Examining the phenomenon in criminal justice professionals has become relevant since the work context is considered a fertile environment for the presence of stalking, despite underreported. This study aims specifically to know the prevalence, nature, dynamics, impact, and help-seeking behaviors (and its perceived effectiveness) of stalking victimization by criminal justice professionals stalked in Portugal. We were also interested in the professionals' perceptions of why they were stalked. The data were collected through a web-based survey, after the approval of the ethic committee. The sample was composed of 270 criminal justice professionals, mostly men (59.3%), with a mean age of 42.70 (SD = 9.07) years. The results showed that 24.8% reported having been stalked at least once in their lifetime. Stalking prevalence was higher in women compared to men. Concerning the profession, the highest prevalence was verified in the group of professionals composed of lawyers, jurists, court officials, and auditors, followed by the group of magistrates, and finally the judges and the criminal police. More diversity of stalking behaviors experienced was associated with a higher frequency of those behaviors. Psychological health (70.7%) and lifestyle/behavioral changes (62.1%) were the most reported areas of impact. Being stalked in a private context (e.g., intimate relationships), for a longer period and feeling a higher level of fear as a result of the stalking campaign were associated with more impact. Most of the victims (74.6%) revealed having sought help to cope with the stalking experience, with women seeking more help than men (88.6% vs. 59.4%). For bringing evidence that criminal justice professionals are at risk of being stalked, these findings can contribute to the adoption of policies and strategies to prevent stalking victimization among this population.

A Behavior Sequence Analysis of Victims' Accounts of Stalking Behaviors.

Stalking is a complex issue involving multiple behaviors and interactions between the stalker and their target. Research has typically involved grouping risk behaviors related to stalking; however, the research question in the current research was to what extent a temporal method would allow investigators to map the dynamics of stalking. Behavior Sequence Analysis is a form of systems analysis that examines sequences of events over time, providing statistically significant results from complex real-world data. The Behavior Sequence Analysis method was applied to 39 participants' detailed accounts of stalking written in online forums. The study provides illustration of the antecedents of stalking and how it may initiate and develop through to end of contact. Both stalker behavior and decisions made by victim were included in the models. The results show multiple patterns of stalkers' behaviors; however, the results also clearly show that victims need not perform many behaviors for stalkers to continue with their actions. A main finding was how many behavior transitions occurred before victims felt a significant problem. A large number of participants indicated that they (repeatedly) reported their case of stalking to police and authorities; however, they were mostly dismissed or felt that police did not stop the stalker's actions. A major implication of the current research is providing a novel method to produce a framework that may be used to operationalize definitions of stalking based on coherent frameworks of stalkers' behaviors over time.

Risk Factors for Severe Violence in Intimate Partner Stalking Situations: An Analysis of Police Records.

Stalkers can be violent, and empirical studies have sought to identify factors associated with violence perpetrated by the stalker. Most of these works view physical violence as a homogeneous construct and do not differentiate between moderate and severe violence. The present study aims to identify correlates of nonviolent, moderate, and severe physical violence within an archival sample of 369 domestically violent police incident reports, where stalking behavior was indicated. The incident reports utilized in this study occurred between 2013 and 2017, among intimate or ex-intimate partners. The present study explored 12 independent variables that have yielded mixed findings in previous stalking violence literature, as well as two previously untested factors of nonfatal strangulation and child contact. The police records were coded for severity of physical violence using the Revised Conflict Tactics Scale and analyzed using a logistic regression. The regression analysis revealed significant independent associations between the outcome variable of severe physical violence and child contact, history of domestic violence, separation, nonfatal strangulation, jealousy, previous injury, and victim belief of potential harm. These results may help produce pragmatic recommendations for law enforcement agencies and other relevant bodies who seek to identify victims at risk of severe violence, increasing the potential for early intervention and prevention of physical harm. The awareness of factors that are shown to be related to serious physical violence may assist first responders in recognizing which victims may be at risk of serious harm, as well as effectively allocating any appropriate resources to reduce and prevent harm.

Assessing the Link Between Intimate Partner Violence and Postrelationship Stalking: A Gender-Inclusive Study.

The link between intimate partner violence (IPV) during a relationship and postrelationship stalking (PRS) is poorly understood. The vast majority of relevant studies focus either on male perpetration or female victimization and use highly selective samples. The current study aimed to illuminate the link between IPV and PRS perpetration and victimization, respectively. To this end, heterosexual male and female university students (n = 422) retrospectively self-reported on IPV during their most conflicted relationship and a wide range of pursuit behavior after the dissolution of this romantic relationship. Using empirical criteria, participants were classified as stalkers or nonstalkers based on their responses. A relationship between male-perpetrated IPV and PRS perpetration was detected. There was no systematic relationship between IPV and PRS perpetration in women. In contrast, there was a link between IPV and stalking victimization that followed a similar, linear trend in both male and female victims. A larger proportion of participants were classified as stalking victims as IPV severity increased. Implications for research (e.g., the importance of gender-inclusive studies), clinical practice (e.g., how to prevent stalking after an abusive relationship), and future directions (e.g., the need for prospective studies using more diverse samples) are discussed.

An Examination of Stalking Experiences During Military Service Among Female and Male Veterans and Associations With PTSD and Depression.

Stalking is associated with mental health concerns, although little is known about the influence of stalking and mental health concerns among veterans. This study evaluated stalking experienced during military service in two community-based, nonclinical samples of veterans (N = 1,980). Models explored (a) types of stalking, (b) characteristics of veterans who experienced stalking, and (c) the associations between stalking with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. Types of stalking varied by sex; female veterans were significantly more likely to experience stalking than male veterans (58.5% vs. 34.6%, p < .001, respectively). Female veterans reported unwanted messages, emails, or phone calls (37.2%), and male veterans experienced someone showing up unannounced or uninvited (23.5%) most frequently. Stalking experiences also differed by age with female and male veterans 18 to 39 years old significantly more likely to have experienced stalking (p < .001 and p < .001, respectively) than veterans over age 40. Associations between prior stalking experiences and mental distress were found for both female and male veterans. Both female and male veterans who experienced stalking were significantly more likely to have probable PTSD (odds ratio [OR] = 1.88, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [1.04, 3.39] and OR = 3.08, 95% CI = [2.27, 4.18], respectively) and depression (OR = 2.54, 95% CI = [1.38, 4.58] and OR = 2.78, 95% CI = [2.05, 3.79], respectively). These findings highlight (a) the rates of stalking experienced during military service, (b) the need for assessment of stalking to inform treatment, and (c) lay the foundation for the Department of Defense (DoD) to further evaluate stalking among military populations.

Who Are the Stalking Victims? Exploring the Victimization Experiences and Psychosocial Characteristics of Young Male and Female Adults in Hong Kong.

Most stalking studies are conducted in the West. Limited information is available on victims of stalking from the Asian continent. This study specifically explored the victimization experiences of young male and female adults in Hong Kong. Using a large sample of university students (N = 2,496) aged between 18 and 40 years, the gender distribution of stalking incident characteristics was examined, along with prevalence of various stalking behaviors, and victim-offender relationships by types of stalking behaviors. The differential role of demographic and psychosocial characteristics in stalking victimization experience was also explored. The lifetime prevalence rate of stalking victimization was 8.2%, with a higher estimate in females than males (11.6% vs. 3.8%). The sample analyzed in this study was 196 stalking victims. Although surveillance-oriented behaviors were most frequently reported by both males and females, significant gender differences in types of stalking behaviors were noted. Multivariate analyses indicated that increases in age and levels of self-esteem were correlated with an increased probability of experiencing stalking victimization, while being a male and higher levels of life satisfaction were related to a lower likelihood of falling prey to stalking victimization. This study concludes with a call for anti-stalking legislation in Hong Kong given the devastating nature and consequences of stalking victimization.

The Association of Stalking Victimization With Adolescents' Depressed Mood and School Mattering.

Stalking victimization may have a significant impact on adolescents' well-being, above and beyond the effects of other types of interpersonal violence victimization. This article explored the association of stalking victimization (unwanted harassing or threats) with adolescents' depressed mood and perception of mattering to other people. Adolescents (age M = 15.8 at baseline, 50.3% girls, 88.9% non-Hispanic White, 85.9% heterosexual) took surveys at two time points and reported on stalking victimization, depressed mood, and perception of mattering. Results indicate that, even when controlling for previous depressed mood and mattering, the odds of depressed mood and mattering among stalking victims was, respectively, 3.31 times higher and 0.49 times lower than the odds of depressed mood and mattering in non-victims. When controlling for other victimization experiences (i.e., dating violence, sexual assault, sexual harassment), the odds of depressed mood among stalking victims was 2.31 times higher than the odds of depressed mood among non-victims, but stalking victims were not less likely to report mattering. Although more research is needed, these results suggest that assessment and intervention efforts should target depressed mood in stalking victims in addition to underscoring the need for primary prevention of stalking in adolescence.

The Effects of Polyvictimization on Mental and Physical Health Outcomes in an LGBTQ Sample.

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer/questioning (LGBTQ) individuals are at elevated risk for violent victimization and often experience increased health disparities compared to their non-LGBTQ counterparts. The present study examined associations between polyvictimization and mental and physical health in an LGBTQ sample. Participants included 385 LGBTQ individuals involved in a larger health-needs assessment of LGBTQ individuals living in the southeastern United States. The sample primarily identified as gay/lesbian (63.4%), cisgender (78.7%), and White (66.5%), and the mean participant age was 34.82 years (SD = 13.45). A latent class analysis (LCA) was conducted on seven items assessing different types of violence exposure. The LCA identified a three-class model, with classes characterized by low trauma exposure (71.4%), nondiscriminatory violence (15.1%), and high trauma exposure (13.5%). Differences in demographic characteristics, perceptions of mental and physical health, and diagnoses of specific health conditions were assessed across classes. The high-trauma class reported poorer perceived physical and mental health compared to the other two classes, with mean differences in past-month poor health days ranging from 11.38 to 17.37. There were no differences between the classes regarding specific physical health conditions; however, the high-trauma and nondiscriminatory violence classes had significantly higher rates of anxiety, depression, drug abuse, and suicidality than the low-trauma class, ORs = 2.39-23.83. The present findings suggest that polyvictimization is an important risk factor for poor health among LGBTQ individuals. These results have implications for addressing health disparities among the broader LGBTQ community.

Technology-Facilitated Domestic and Sexual Violence: A Review.

This article investigates the phenomenon of domestic and sexual violence against adult women using digital communications technologies. The article explores terminological and conceptual challenges and describes the empirical research literature in this field to date in relation to digital dating abuse, intimate partner cyberstalking, technology-facilitated sexual assault, image-based sexual abuse, and online sexual harassment. The article also discusses policy and practice responses to this growing problem, as well as future directions for research. We argue that research and practice need to be guided by existing conceptual frameworks that utilize gender and actor-network theory to understanding the causes and consequences of women's experiences of abuse and violence facilitated by digital technologies.