The ontogeny of personality: Repeatability of social and escape behaviors across developmental stages in Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus).

Animal personality is defined as behavioral tendencies that are consistent across time and contexts within an individual, but differ across individuals. Studies investigating personality typically examine individuals across short time periods or within a single life stage. Growing evidence suggests that personality may be less stable across life stages, highlighting the need to consider the effects of ontogeny on the expression of consistent behavioral traits. We investigated individual consistency in social and escape behaviors across developmental stages using Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus). To determine whether individuals were consistent in these behaviors as juveniles and across developmental stages, we measured male and female social and escape behaviors twice as juveniles and once as adults. Individuals' social scores were significantly repeatable within the juvenile stage, but not across developmental stages. In contrast, escape scores were highly repeatable across developmental stages, with males' scores being more repeatable than females' scores. Our results support previous findings that personality traits, especially those associated with social behavior, are less stable across development, whereas behaviors associated with stress or coping may represent a more permanent feature of an individual's phenotype. Our results also indicate potential sex differences in long-term repeatability of personality. Considering how ontogeny affects animal personality for males and females can provide insight into the evolution and mechanisms that maintain animal personality.

Seasonal adaptation of dwarf hamsters (Genus Phodopus): differences between species and their geographic origin.

The genus Phodopus consists of three species--P. campbelli (Pc), P. sungorus (Ps), and P. roborovskii (Pr). They inhabit steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts in continental Asia with a climate changing from a moderate to a hard Continental one with extreme daily and seasonal variations. These different environmental challenges are likely to have consequences for hamsters' morphology, physiology, and behavior. Hamsters of all three species were investigated during the course of the year in the laboratory though using natural lighting and temperature conditions. Motor activity and body temperature were measured continuously, and body mass, testes size, and fur coloration every 1-2 weeks. With regard to the pattern of activity, nearly twice as many Pc as Ps hamsters (25 vs. 14%) failed to respond to changes of photoperiod, whereas all Pr hamsters did. Body mass and testes size were high in summer and low in winter, with the biggest relative change in Ps and the lowest in Pr hamsters. Changes of fur coloration were found in Ps hamsters only. All responding animals (that is excluding Pr), exhibited regular torpor bouts during the short winter days. In autumn, seasonal changes started considerably earlier in Ps hamsters. To investigate the putative causes of these different time courses, a further experiment was performed, to identify the critical photoperiod. Hamsters were kept for 10 weeks under different photoperiods, changing from 16 to 8 h light per day. Motor activity was recorded continuously, to identify responding and non-responding animals. Body mass was measured at the beginning and the end of the experiment, testes mass only at the end. The critical photoperiod was found to be similar in all three species. Though in a further experiment, Pc and Pr hamsters showed a delayed response, whereas the changes in Ps hamsters started immediately following transfer to short-day conditions. The results show that interspecific differences in seasonal adaptation exist, even between the closely related Ps and Pc hamsters, possibly due to different conditions in their natural habitat. Also, the impact of environmental factors like climatic conditions and food resources may differ between species.

Mitochondria-targeted antioxidant SkQ1 accelerates maturation in Campbell dwarf hamsters (Phodopus campbelli).

We tested two hypotheses. 1) SkQ1 positively affects postnatal development of hamsters in litters born to parents receiving long-term SkQ1 treatment. 2) SkQ1 accelerates maturation of juvenile females receiving the antioxidant treatment from 10 days of age. Parental pairs were kept in an outdoor vivarium under conditions close to natural. At the age of 25 days, juvenile males in litters born to parents treated daily with SkQ1 (50 nmol/kg per os) had higher epididymis mass. Both the size of a litter and SkQ1 affected epididymis mass in young males. Both the litter size and SkQ1 affected uterus mass in 25-day-old females. Juvenile females who received SkQ1 treatment from 10 days of age demonstrated earlier opening of the vagina. This experiment was replicated with the same result. At the age of 2.5 months, virgin females treated with SkQ1 from the early age demonstrated higher ovary mass.

Djungarian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus) are not susceptible to stimulating effects of 6-methoxy-2-benzoxazolinone on reproductive organs.

The secondary plant metabolite 6-methoxy-2-benzoxazolinone (6-MBOA) is abundant in vegetative parts of monocotyledons emerging in spring. This grazing protective has been shown to promote gonadal growth and, thus enable precise alignment of reproductive activity with favorable environmental conditions in a variety of seasonally breeding rodent species. Feeding and breeding ecology make the Djungarian hamster (Phodopus sungorus) a potential candidate using 6-MBOA as an acute environmental cue to optimize reproductive timing when photorefractoriness induces reproductive recrudescence. Therefore, four different experiments were designed to examine whether the hamsters' reproductive organs are responsive to oral 6-MBOA administration under different photoperiodic conditions. Only under a long photoperiod, we found a slight increase in uterine weights. In a short photoperiod, 6-MBOA-treated hamsters showed a slight body weight gain without a change in uterine weights. However, these marginal effects are likely not to be of ecophysiological significance for reproductive timing. The results are in agreement with the common view that the annual changes in photoperiod length are not only the predominant environmental cue for Djungarian hamsters, but are also sufficient to synchronize reproductive efforts with favorable breeding conditions in highly predictable climates like the continental Asian steppes.

Post-natal growth of the gastrointestinal tract of the Siberian hamster: morphometric analysis.

Post-natal growth of the gastrointestinal tract of the Siberian hamster was studied in newborn and 3-, 7-, 14-, 21-, 42- and 90-day-old animals. Morphometric measurements and calculations were carried out: length and internal surface of gastrointestinal tract segments, size (height, width, surface) and density of villi as well as allometric growth rate of the length and internal surface of the segments with respect to the body mass. The fastest growth rate of the gastrointestinal tract segments was noticed during the first 3 days of the post-natal life. Nevertheless, significant regional differences in their growth rate were found. The increase in the length and internal surface of the large intestine was fastest, while the smallest increase was observed in the oesophagus. All segments of the gastrointestinal tract except oesophagus exhibited a positive allometric relationship to the body mass from birth till final weaning, whereas during the post-weaning period, the increase was isometric. Thus, at birth, the gastrointestinal tract segments were relatively smaller compared with those observed in adults, but then, the gastrointestinal tract grew faster than the rest of the body and reached its adult proportions just before the transition to solid food. Most probably, reaching the adult structure of the gastrointestinal tract before the final weaning is an essential condition for the proper growth of an organism after the weaning.

[Resting metabolic rate, stress, testosterone, and induced immune response in "spring" and "fall" males of Campbell dwarf hamsters. Rearing under the long day conditions].

We have studied morphological and physiological traits of even-young males of Campbell dwarf hamsters (Phodopus campbelli Thomas, 1905) born at the end of summer ("fall males") and at the end of winter ("spring males") in a vivarium with constant 14-hour day length (14D:10N). After removal from parental cages at the age of one month, males were kept in isolation under the same light conditions. The results obained signify the statistical difference between "fall" and "spring" males in resting metabolic rate, morphological traits associated with sexual activity, some endocrine and immunologic characteristics. Spring males had higher resting metabolic rate, higher body mass in the middle of experiment, bigger testes, seminal vesicles, higher concentration of testosterone in blood and more intensive T-cell immune response to the intracutaneous injection of phytohemagglutinin. They did not differ significantly in basal level of blood cortisole and antibodies production in response to sheep red blood cells (SRBC) antigen challenge, but possessed lower adrenocortical response to the social stressor and adrenocorticotropic hormone. GLM analysis showed that cortisol level in blood after 10 min encounter of males in the open arena, and resting metabolic rate were the only factors significantly influenced humoral immune response to SRBC. When intensity of T-cell immune response was considered as dependent variable, season turned out to be the only factor in the final model that caused a significant effect.

Influence of pelage insulation and ambient temperature on energy intake and growth of juvenile Siberian hamsters.

Both growth and thermoregulation are energetically costly, and many studies implicate an energetic tradeoff between them. Moreover, fur is known to ameliorate thermoregulatory costs in adult mammals, but its role in maintaining energy balance during growth is unclear. This study tested for an energetic tradeoff between growth and thermoregulation in juvenile Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus) and the effect of an insulative pelage on intrinsic growth rate. Hamsters weaned at 18 days of age and left fully furred or deprived of all dorsal fur by shaving at 20 days of age, were housed at 10 degrees C or 23 degrees C. Body mass, length, and food consumption were measured until hamsters were 35 days old. Thermal challenge, whether by low ambient temperature or shaving, resulted in increased food intake and decreased efficiency at converting food into body mass. Body mass and length were not affected by the thermal challenges. These results suggest that there is no mandatory tradeoff between growth and thermoregulation in this species, particularly when food is in abundant supply. Although fur was not necessary for normal growth to proceed, it ameliorated energetic costs associated with thermoregulation, and may play a role in maintaining energy balance under conditions of limited food availability.

Photoperiod-induced differences in uterine growth in Phodopus sungorus are evident at an early age when serum estradiol and uterine estrogen receptor levels are not different.

Sexual development is inhibited in Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus) in short days (SD), and a small uterus is an obvious indicator of photo-inhibition. The small uterus in SD is presumably due to the delayed onset of estrous cycles. However, in an earlier study, the investigators reported that serum estradiol (E2) concentration was significantly higher in young females raised in SD than in long days (LD), with the highest concentrations measured in SD at 4 weeks of age. These seemingly contradictory findings were investigated in the present study. First, uterine mass and body mass were measured in SD- and LD-reared hamsters from 1 to 12 weeks of age. Uterine mass was significantly greater in LD than in SD by 3 weeks of age and onward. Thereafter, our investigation focused on 4-week-old hamsters. Serum E2 concentrations in LD and in SD were not significantly different and there were no significant LD-SD differences in uterine estrogen receptors (ER), as measured by immunohistochemistry and quantitative real-time RT-PCR. Therefore, alternative explanations for the photoperiodic difference in uterine size in young Siberian hamsters are considered.

Seasonal pelage changes are synchronized by simulated natural photoperiods in Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus).

The extent to which changing day lengths (DLs) synchronize the seasonal molt was assessed in nine cohorts of male and female Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus) born into a simulated natural photoperiod (SNP) beginning 4 weeks before and ending 12 weeks after the summer solstice. Hamsters in early cohorts displayed rapid somatic and gonadal growth and early puberty, whereas those in later cohorts delayed puberty until the next spring. Despite the varying birth dates and puberty strategies, the seasonal pattern of change in pelage is much better predicted by calendar date than by age in both sexes. Males born over the course of 16 weeks first made the transition to the winter pelage during a 5-week interval beginning on October 25; the autumn molt, however, was not significantly synchronized by either age or calendar date. The autumn molt of females on the other hand began 2 weeks later, and was significantly synchronized to calendar date with no detectable age effects. In both sexes, the autumn molt lagged gonadal and somatic seasonal changes by many weeks. Date of birth did not affect the timing of the spring molt, which was significantly synchronized by calendar date in both sexes. Incrementally changing photoperiods exert a strong organizing effect on the seasonal molt by providing hamsters with timing cues that are absent in laboratory analyses that employ static DLs and abrupt transitions from summer to winter DLs, thereby extending and validating conclusions derived from previous analyses.

[Time shift invariant properties of commonly used growth models and their application].

Growth analysis is of significance in estimating the age of organisms, but in reality, the initial time for this estimation adopted by different authors is not always the same. For example, in the growth analysis of mammals, the age could be birth age or conceptional age. Such a discrepancy in time, the so-called time shift, may generate different results in parameter-simulating process. In this paper, the time-shift invariant properties of commonly used three-parameter growth models, i.e., Spillman, Logistic, Gompertz and Bertalanffy models, were analyzed, and the results showed that these four models all had the invariant characters under any time shift, namely, no matter which initial time (age) of estimation was adopted, the same fitness was obtained. A case study was made with the growth data of Phodopus roborovskii and by adopting both birth age and conceptional age.

Neonatal exposure to short days and low temperatures blunts stress response and yields low fluctuating asymmetry in Siberian hamsters.

Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) refers to small, non-directional deviations from perfect bilateral symmetry in morphological characters. Individuals with low FA presumably either developed in a relatively stable environment and/or were better able to buffer against developmental stressors. The present study investigated the effects of seasonal factors measured by day length and ambient temperature manipulations on the development of bilateral characters and concomitant changes in stress responses. Siberian hamsters were exposed to either long days (16 h of light per day) or short days (8 h of light per day) combined with either standard temperatures (21+/-2 degrees C) or low temperatures (8+/-2 degrees C) on the day of birth until weaning. Cortisol concentrations at baseline and following acute restraint stress, and FA values were measured in adulthood. Females reared in winter-like conditions with short day lengths and low temperatures had low FA and low cortisol concentrations following restraint stress compared to other females. Females reared in long day lengths and standard temperatures had the highest rate of increase in cortisol concentrations after restraint among other female groups. No group effects were observed in males regarding day length and temperature manipulations. Baseline and post-restraint cortisol concentrations were higher in females than males for all groups except in animals reared in short day lengths and low temperatures. Our results suggest that winter-like conditions during neonatal period evoke hyposensitivity to stress in adult females and this blunted response to stress is a key factor in achieving ideal growth patterns.

Ontogeny of the transition from killer to caregiver in dwarf hamsters (Phodopus campbelli) with biparental care.

Biparental Phodopus campbelli and uniparental P. sungorus juvenile litters (2 males, 2 females) both consumed amniotic fluid and placenta during the birth of younger siblings. Three days later, P. campbelli juveniles were most responsive to a displaced younger sibling. Thus, P. campbelli are responsive to pups as juvenile alloparents and as new parents; however, at intervening ages, infanticidal attack (bite) was seen. At 5, 7, 9, 11, or 13 weeks of age, male and female P. campbelli were given a 5-min test with an unrelated, 3-day-old, anesthetized pup. Females attacked more often than males, yet pup-retrieval rates did not differ. Female aggression increased with age and was replaced by retrieval behavior 3 days after parturition. Male attack ceased after a birth, but parental behavior did not increase, remaining below the rate for new fathers tested with their own awake pup. Over repeated testing, behavior in one test did not predict behavior in another. Transitions from caregiving alloparent to infanticidal adult and back to parental care were clear in females, but less discrete with this stimulus paradigm in these highly paternal males.

Melatonin implants disrupt developmental synchrony regulated by flexible interval timers.

Siberian hamsters born into short daylengths near the end of the breeding season are reproductively inhibited from birth and delay gonadal maturation until the following spring. This vernal transition to a reproductive phenotype coincides with an abrupt increase in body weight, and both processes are triggered by an interval timing mechanism that becomes insensitive, or refractory, to short-day inhibition. It was previously demonstrated that hamsters born into simulated natural photoperiods in early August became photorefractory at later ages than hamsters born into September photoperiods. As a consequence of flexibility in the duration programmed by the interval timer, development of seasonal birth cohorts was synchronous with respect to the calendar date simulated by laboratory photoperiod. In the present study, hamsters were born into simulated August or September photoperiods. Hamsters from each cohort were given removable constant release melatonin implants to reversibly obscure the neuroendocrine representation of daylength between 3 and 9 weeks or 9-15 weeks of age. When control hamsters were given beeswax capsules throughout, August-born males were approximately 6 weeks older than September males at the onset of photorefractoriness as assessed by accelerated increases in body weight and testicular size. Females exhibited the same pattern in body weight. These measures were synchronized with respect to calendar date. Synchronization of cohorts was disrupted by melatonin capsules from 3-9 weeks of age but not by later implants. Melatonin implants altered synchronization by influencing the developmental trajectory of September-born hamsters without influencing the August cohort. These results demonstrate that the function of the interval timer underlying photorefractoriness is influenced by photoperiod and by melatonin. The endogenous pattern of melatonin signals adjusts the duration measured by the interval timer to insure that developmental milestones of seasonal cohorts are synchronized with environmental conditions.

Absence of pineal-independent mediation of seasonal differences in suprachiasmatic nucleus AVP and VIP mRNA expression in Siberian hamsters.

Assessment of seasonal variations in expression of brain neuropeptide mRNA is complicated by concurrent circadian variations. Because entrainment of suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) based rhythms differs in long versus short day lengths, valid seasonal comparisons must be made at equivalent circadian phases. We used a novel experimental design which permitted sampling at identical circadian phases of animals exhibiting opposite seasonal reproductive responses to the same intermediate day length. This allowed us to test whether seasonal changes in arginine vasopressin (AVP) and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) mRNA expression in the SCN occur in the absence of the pineal gland. Juvenile Siberian hamsters were gestated and maintained postnatally in either a long photoperiod (16 h light/day) or short photoperiod (10 h light/day). At the time of weaning (18 days of age), the hamsters were pinealectomized and either transferred to a new photoperiod (10-, 16- or 14-h light/day) or left in the original photoperiod. Hamsters from 10L had substantially smaller and lighter testes than those from 16L. If photoperiodic modulation of AVP and VIP mRNA expression occurs in the absence of the pineal, then transfer of pinealectomized hamsters from a longer (16L) or shorter (10L) photoperiod to an intermediate photoperiod (14L) should result in a differential response with respect to SCN AVP and VIP mRNA expression but not testis size. When sampled at an identical circadian phase (3 h after lights on) in 14L there was no difference in the expression of AVP or VIP mRNA in the SCN between animals previously housed in long versus short day lengths. In contrast to a previous study that did not carefully control for circadian phase, the present findings suggest that seasonal photoperiodic control of SCN neuropeptide mRNA expression depends upon the pineal gland. In addition, the present findings demonstrate a significant, negative correlation between AVP mRNA expression in the SCN and the length of the daily active phase (alpha).

Testicular and somatic growth in Siberian hamsters depend on the melatonin-free interval between twice daily melatonin signals.

In Siberian hamsters, day length is encoded by the duration of the nocturnal melatonin signal; short and long melatonin signals over the course of several weeks stimulate and inhibit somatic and gonadal development, respectively, in prepubertal males. We sought to determine whether juvenile male Siberian hamsters respond to multiple melatonin signals each day and the manner in which the sequence of melatonin signals and the duration of the melatonin-free interval between signals affects development. Twenty-one day old male Siberian hamsters, gestated and maintained in a short-day photoperiod of 10 h light/day (10 L), were transferred to constant light to suppress endogenous melatonin secretion and received s.c. infusions of melatonin or saline for 12 days. Hamsters infused with saline retained small testes, whereas one short melatonin infusion each day resulted in significant testicular growth. Other hamsters were provided with two melatonin signals each day, one long (9 h) and one short (4 or 5 h); the order in which these signals was administered and the duration of the melatonin-free interval after each signal varied between groups. In asymmetrical melatonin infusions, the first and second daily infusions were followed by 3-h and 7-h melatonin-free intervals, respectively, whereas in symmetrical infusions, each melatonin signal was followed by a 5-h melatonin-free interval. In the asymmetrical sequence, the melatonin signal that immediately preceded the longer melatonin-free interval determined the rate gonadal growth. Equal melatonin-free intervals after each of the long and short daily melatonin infusions produced intermediate increases in gonadal and somatic development. The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis of Siberian hamsters can respond to multiple melatonin signals each day, with the rate of testicular growth determined primarily by the duration of the melatonin-free interval following each infusion.

A test of the coincidence and duration models of melatonin action in Siberian hamsters. II. The effects of 4- and 8-hr melatonin infusions on testicular development of pinealectomized juvenile Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus).

In a previous paper we demonstrated that properly timed 1-hr infusions of 50 ng melatonin effectively suppressed testicular development in juvenile Siberian hamsters. Only melatonin infused between 20:00 and 21:00 hr was effective in animals exposed to 16L (lights off 20:00 hr). In this paper we further investigate the importance of the coincidence and duration hypotheses of daily exposure of melatonin. Prepubertal Siberian hamsters received either 4- or 8-hr melatonin infusions at various times either on long photoperiod (LD 16:8 = 16L) or on short photoperiod (LD 10:14 = 10L). Daily 8-hr melatonin infusions suppressed testicular development in both photoperiods. Daily 4-hr, 50 ng/hr, melatonin infusions at 17:00-21:00 hr inhibited testicular growth in 16L and daily 4-hr melatonin infusions (either 50 ng/h or 50 ng/day) inhibited testicular growth at 17:00-21:00 hr in 10L. We also tested the efficacy of an interrupted melatonin infusion of long duration (8 hr). Pinealectomized prepubertal male Siberian hamsters, born on 16L, were infused with two signals of 4 hr separated by an interval of 2 hr. Melatonin-infused groups had significantly inhibited testicular growth compared to vehicle-infused animals. Testicular development was maximally inhibited only in those groups in which the period of melatonin sensitivity identified in the previous paper (20:00-21:00 hr) overlapped or immediately followed a period of melatonin infusion. Considering the restrictions of the experimental design employed in these studies, the results are best explained by the hypothesis that the photoperiodic gonadal response in juvenile Siberian hamsters is regulated by the coincidence in time of exogenously administered melatonin with an intrinsic rhythm of sensitivity to melatonin, which occurred at 20:00-21:00 hr. The duration of the melatonin signal alone can not explain the results.

Short day lengths affect perinatal development of the male reproductive system in the Siberian hamster, Phodopus sungorus.

The Siberian hamster, Phodopus sungorus, breeds seasonally. In the laboratory, seasonal breeding can be controlled by photoperiod, which affects the duration of nightly melatonin secretion. Winterlike, short day lengths induce gonadal regression in adult animals, and pups born and maintained in short days undergo pubertal gonadal development later than animals born into long days. However, to date there have been no reports of gestational photoperiod affecting fetal development of reproductive systems. The spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernosus (SNB) and its target muscles, the bulbocavernosus (BC) and levator ani (LA), compose a sexually dimorphic, androgen-sensitive neuromuscular system involved in male reproduction. The SNB neuromuscular system was studied in male Siberian hamsters maintained from conception in short-day (8 h light, 16 h dark; 8L:16D) versus long-day (16L:8D) conditions. On the day of birth, and at postnatal (PN) days 2 and 18, the BC/LA muscles of hamsters gestated and raised in the short photoperiod were significantly reduced relative to those of their long-day counterparts. Testes weights were not significantly different between groups until day 18. Thus, photoperiod exposure during gestation and after birth affects perinatal development of the SNB system in this species, and these effects can be seen as early as the day of birth. Because photoperiod did not significantly affect testes weights until PN18, these results suggest that either perinatal photoperiod affects fetal androgen production without affecting testes weight or it influences BC/LA development independently from androgen.

Short day lengths delay development of the SNB neuromuscular system in the Siberian hamster, Phodopus sungorus.

The Siberian hamster, Phodopus sungorus, breeds seasonally. In the laboratory, the seasonal breeding can be controlled by photoperiod, which affects the durations of nightly melatonin secretions. Winterlike short day lengths induce gonadal regression in adult animals, and pups born and maintained in short days undergo gonadal development much later than animals born into long days. The spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernosus (SNB) and its target muscles, the bulbocavernosus (BC) and levator ani (LA), comprise a sexually dimorphic, androgensensitive neuromuscular system involved in male reproduction. The SNB neuromuscular system was studied in male Siberian hamsters maintained from conception in short-day (8:16 h light/dark cycle) versus long-day (16:8 h light/dark cycle) conditions. At 40-47 days of age, development of three components of the SNB neuromuscular system were all significantly delayed in hamsters raised in the short photoperiod: BC/LA muscle weight, the size of SNB motoneuronal somata, and the area of the neuromuscular junctions at the BC/LA muscles of short-day hamsters were each significantly reduced relative to those of longday counterparts. Thus, development of the SNB reproductive system is delayed under short day lengths in this species.

Age-related changes in the photoperiodic response of Siberian hamsters.

Previous studies indicate that as Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus) age, they may lose their ability to show gonadal regression in response to short days. In one study, hamsters that regressed on short days early in life failed to regress when exposed to short days a second time later in life. Thus, Siberian hamsters may experience age-related deficits in photoresponsiveness or may be incapable of regressing twice. In the present study, we attempted to discriminate between these possibilities by examining patterns of gonadal regression in hamsters transferred back and forth from long (16L:8D) to short days (6L:18D) every 6.5, 13, or 26 wk for a 2-yr period. A control group was maintained on long days and had enlarged gonads throughout the entire study. Hamsters alternating between 26 wk of long and short days exhibited complete gonadal regression during their initial but not during their second exposure to short days. Hamsters alternated between long and short days every 13 or 6.5 wk showed regression two to three times, respectively. After about 52 wk of age, the majority of animals in both groups did not regress when exposed to short days. Taken together, the results of this experiment indicate that male Siberian hamsters 1) can exhibit at least two rounds of short-day-induced gonadal regression and 2) fail to regress on short days after about 1 yr of age.

Effects of photoperiod on testicular inhibin-alpha and androgen binding protein mRNA expression during postnatal development in Siberian hamsters, Phodopus sungorus.

The effects of short photoperiod (SPP) on testicular inhibin-alpha and androgen binding protein (ABP) mRNA expression were investigated in Siberian hamsters during postnatal development. Hamsters were raised in either long photoperiod (LPP; 16L:8D) or in a SPP (6L:18D). Hamsters were sacrificed at the following developmental ages: preweaning (18-20 days), immature (28-30 days), pubertal (38-40 days), postpubertal (48-50 days) and adult (60-62 days; n = 7-12 animals per group). Body and testicular weights were determined and plasma FSH levels were measured by validated RIA. As expected, testicular weight and circulating FSH levels were significantly lower in hamsters raised in SPP than in LPP animals. Photoperiod had no significant effect on body weight except during postpubertal age. The northern analyses of inhibin-alpha and ABP expression in the testes revealed that the corresponding relative mRNA levels were higher in animals exposed to SPP than in animals from LPP. These findings suggest that the testes of hamsters exposed to a SPP can synthesize inhibin-alpha and ABP, and we speculate that the release of these proteins may be regulated by photoperiod and the role of FSH in the control of inhibin-alpha and ABP gene expression in male Siberian hamsters may be minimal.