Myo-inositol hexakisphosphate, isolated from female gametophyte tissue of loblolly pine, inhibits growth of early-stage somatic embryos.

• Myo-inositol hexakisphosphate (InsP(6)), abundant in animals and plants, is well known for its anticancer activity. However, many aspects of InsP(6) function in plants remain undefined. We now report the first evidence that InsP(6) can inhibit cellular proliferation in plants under growth conditions where phosphorus is not limited. • A highly anionic molecule inhibitory to early-stage somatic embryo growth of loblolly pine (LP) was purified chromatographically from late-stage LP female gametophytes (FGs), and then characterized structurally using mass spectrometry (MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses. • Exact mass and mass spectrometry-mass spectrometry (MS-MS) fragmentation identified the bioactive molecule as an inositol hexakisphosphate. It was then identified as the myo-isomer (i.e. InsP(6)) on the basis of (1)H-, (31)P- and (13)C-NMR, (1)H-(1)H correlation spectroscopy (COSY), (1)H-(31)P heteronuclear single quantum correlation (HSQC) and (1)H-(13)C HSQC. Topical application of InsP(6) to early-stage somatic embryos indeed inhibits embryonic growth. • Recently evidence has begun to emerge that InsP(6) may also play a regulatory role in plant cells. We anticipate that our findings will help to stimulate additional investigations aimed at elucidating the roles of inositol phosphates in cellular growth and development in plants.

Pine somatic embryogenesis using zygotic embryos as explants.

Somatic embryogenesis (SE) has the potential to be the lowest-cost method to rapidly produce large numbers of high-value somatic seedlings with desired characteristics for plantation forestry. At least 24 of the 115-120 known Pinus species can undergo SE. Initiation for most species works best with immature megagametophytes as starting material, although a few pines can initiate SE cultures from isolated mature seed embryos. Successful initiation depends heavily on explant type, embryo developmental stage, and medium salt base. Most first reports of initiation used 2,4-D and BAP or a combination of cytokinins. More recent reports have optimized initiation for many Pinus spp., but still use mostly the combinations of auxin and cytokinins. Initiation can be stimulated with medium supplements including abscisic acid (ABA), brassinosteroids, ethylene inhibitors, gibberellin inhibitors, organic acids, putrescine, specific sugar types (maltose, galactose, D-chiro-inositol, and D-xylose), triacontanol, vitamins (B12, biotin, vitamin E, and folic acid), or manipulation of environmental factors including pH, water potential, cone cold storage, gelling agent concentration, and liquid medium. Embryo development and maturation usually occur best on medium containing ABA along with water potential reduction (with sugars and polyethylene glycol) or water availability reduction (with raised gelling agent increasing gel-strength). Activated carbon and maltose may also improve embryo maturation. The main issues holding SE technology back are related to the high cost of producing a somatic seedling, incurred from low initiation percentages for recalcitrant species, culture loss, and decline after initiation and poor embryo maturation resulting in no or poor germination. Although vast progress has been made in pine SE technology over the past 24 years, fundamental studies on seed and embryo physiology, biochemistry, and gene expression are still needed to help improve the technology to a point where large-scale commercialization is economically viable for a broad range of pine species.

Predicting the regenerative capacity of conifer somatic embryogenic cultures by metabolomics.

Somatic embryogenesis in gymnosperms is an effective approach to clonally propagating germplasm. However, embryogenic cultures frequently lose regenerative capacity. The interactions between metabolic composition, physiological state, genotype and embryogenic capacity in Pinus taeda (loblolly pine) somatic embryogenic cultures were explored using metabolomics. A stepwise modelling procedure, using the Bayesian information criterion, generated a 47 metabolite predictive model that could explain culture productivity. The model performed extremely well in cross-validation, achieving a correlation coefficient of 0.98 between actual and predicted mature embryo production. The metabolic composition and structure of the model implied that variation in culture regenerative capacity was closely linked to the physiological transition of cultures from the proliferation phase to the maturation phase of development. The propensity of cultures to advance into this transition appears to relate to nutrient uptake and allocation in vivo, and to be associated with the tolerance and response of cultures to stress, during the proliferation phase.

Conifer embryogenic tissue initiation: improvements by supplementation of medium with D-xylose and D-chiro-inositol.

A major barrier to the commercialization of somatic embryogenesis technology in loblolly pine (LP, Pinus taeda L.) is recalcitrance of some high-value crosses to initiate embryogenic tissue and to continue early-stage somatic embryo growth. Developing initiation and multiplication media that resemble the seed environment may decrease this recalcitrance. Sugar and sugar alcohol analyses were performed weekly throughout the sequence of seed development for female gametophyte and zygotic embryo tissues to determine physiologic concentrations (Pullman, G.S. and M. Buchanan. 2008. Identification and quantitative analysis of stage-specific carbohydrates in LP (Pinus taeda) zygotic embryo and female gametophyte tissues. Tree Physiol. 28:985-996). Major differences in stage-specific sugars were observed. A simple bioassay was used to evaluate the potential growth promotion of individual carbohydrates added to initiation or multiplication media at physiologic concentrations. Seventeen sugars were screened. Compounds showing statistically significant increases in early-stage embryo growth were then tested for the ability to increase the initiation of LP. d-xylose and d-chiro-inositol produced statistically significant increases in early-stage embryo growth. When tested for improved initiation in P. taeda, Pseudotsuga menziesii (mirb) Franco and Picea abies L., Karst., d-xylose increased the averages of initiation by 6.5%, 7.3% and 16.7%, respectively. d-chiro-inositol increased the initiation in P. taeda by 7.3% in one test but not in the other, whereas in P. menziesii the initiation increases averaged 8.4% in two tests. Analyses of sugars and sugar alcohols in the seed environment coupled with a bioassay to screen potential media supplements for protocol improvement resulted in statistically significant increases in embryogenic tissue initiation for several coniferous species.

Identification and quantitative analysis of stage-specific carbohydrates in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) zygotic embryo and female gametophyte tissues.

Stage-specific analyses of starch and 18 sugars, including pentoses, hexoses, disaccharides, trisaccharides, oligosaccharides and sugar alcohols, were made throughout seed development for zygotic embryo and female gametophyte (FG) tissues of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.). Tissue was most often analyzed in triplicate from two open-pollinated families grown in different locations and sampled in different years. Carbohydrates were analyzed by enzymatic assay, high performance liquid chromatography or gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. For all carbohydrates quantified, peak concentrations were higher in embryo tissue than in FG tissue. Significant changes in starch and sugar concentrations occurred over time, with both seed collections showing similar trends in temporal changes. Although concentrations were not always similar, embryo and FG tissues generally showed similar patterns of change in starch and sugar concentrations over time. Total starch concentration was highest during early seed development and decreased as development progressed. The major sugars contributing to osmotic potential during early seed development were D-pinitol, sucrose, fructose and glucose. During mid-seed development, D-pinitol, sucrose, fructose, glucose, melibiose and raffinose provided major contributions to the osmotic environment. During late seed development, sucrose, raffinose, melibiose, stachyose and fructose were the major contributors to osmotic potential. These data suggest stage-specific media composition for each step in the somatic embryogenesis protocol.

Evidence for stage-specific modulation of specific microRNAs (miRNAs) and miRNA processing components in zygotic embryo and female gametophyte of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda).

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are known to regulate plant development, but have not been studied in gymnosperm seed tissues. The presence and characteristics of several miRNAs were examined in zygotic embryos (ZEs) and female gametophytes (FGs) of Pinus taeda (loblolly pine). Evidence for miRNAs was obtained using northern analyses and quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) mediated with poly(A) polymerase. Partial sequences of two miRNAs were verified. Three regions of putative mRNA targets were analyzed by qRT-PCR to monitor the occurrence of stage-dependent miRNA-mediated cleavage. Five miRNAs were identified in ZEs and FGs along with partial sequences of Pta-miR166 and Pta-miR167. Both miRNAs showed differing degrees of tissue-specific and stage-specific modulation. Analysis of HB15L mRNA (a potential Pta-miR166 target) suggested miRNA-guided cleavage in ZEs and FGs. Analysis of ARF8L mRNA (a potential Pta-miR167 target) implied cleavage in ZEs but not in FGs. Argonaute9-like mRNA (ptAGO9L) showed stage-specific modulation of expression in ZEs that appeared to be inverted in the corresponding FGs. MicroRNAs and argonaute genes varied spatiotemporally during seed development. The peak levels of Pta-miR166 in FGs and ptAGO9L in embryos occurred at stage 9.1, a critical transition point during embryo development and a point where somatic embryo maturation often stops. MicroRNAs identified in FG tissue may play a role in embryogenesis.

Selfed embryo death in Pinus taeda: a phenotypic profile.

Selective elimination of selfed embryos, or inbreeding depression, is shared among many members of the Pinaceae but it has not been fully characterized at the phenotypic level. Here, two death pattern model hypotheses are tested using 10 621 Pinus taeda embryos sampled in two cohorts. Cones from a single pedigree based on selfed, outbred, parent-offspring and offspring-parent matings were destructively sampled weekly before, during and after fertilization. Selfed embryo deaths adhered to two patterns over the course of development: death was linear with respect to days from fertilization; and a stage-specific death peak occurred during the early embryogeny stage. This death peak occurred from 23 to 36 d after fertilization in the 2004 cohort and from 27 to 34 d after fertilization in the 2006 cohort. Of those selfed embryos that died, 64-83% died at stages where a single dominant embryo was elongating inside the female gametophyte. Additional genetic models are needed to account for the stage-specific death component of selfed P. taeda embryos.

Liquid medium and liquid overlays improve embryogenic tissue initiation in conifers.

Somatic embryogenesis (SE) is expected to play an important role in increasing productivity, sustainability, and uniformity of future US forests. For commercial use, SE technology must work with a variety of genetically diverse trees. Initiation in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.), the main commercial US forest species, is often recalcitrant for desirable genotypes. Liquid initiation medium with no or low gelling agent or placement of the explant on gelled medium followed later by a liquid medium overlay during the initiation process increased initiation for loblolly pine and Norway spruce (Picea abies). Loblolly pine liquid medium required reduction of NAA from 2 mg/l in gelled medium to 0.3 mg/l in liquid medium. Once the NAA concentration was adjusted, loblolly pine initiation occurred in liquid medium with fully immersed megagametophytes, explants supported at the liquid medium surface, or on gelled medium overlaid with liquid medium. Liquid overlays (0.25 ml) consisting of medium with NAA reduced to 0.3 mg/l, 9 mg/l ABA and no gelling agent applied to explants on 2 ml of gelled medium provided excellent initiation results. Greatest initiation percentages occurred when the liquid overlay was applied 14 days after placement of the megagametophyte on gelled medium. Initiation increases ranged from +8.5% with high-value cross-pollinated seed sources to +6.5 to +9.9% with open-pollinated and often recalcitrant seed sources. Liquid medium addition allows rapid replenishment of nutrients and adjustment or change of pH, hormones, or other parameters without disturbing the tissue.

Improved somatic embryo maturation in loblolly pine by monitoring ABA-responsive gene expression.

During loblolly pine zygotic embryo development, increases in mRNAs for three ABA-responsive LEA-like genes coincided with the two developmental stage-specific peaks of endogenous ABA accumulation (Kapik et al. 1995). These ABA concentration profiles from zygotic embryo development were used to develop several tissue culture approaches that altered the exposure of somatic embryos to exogenous ABA. Elevating exogenous ABA at a time corresponding to mid-maturation improved the germination and resulted in more zygotic-like expression of selected genes in somatic embryos. Extending the time on maturation medium for a fourth month increased embryo yield, dry weight, and germination in high-and low-yield genotypes. Optimizing the amounts of embryogenic suspension, plated and exogenous ABA concentration increased from 22 to 66% in the early-stage bipolar embryos that developed to the cotyledonary stage.

Light quality treatments enhance somatic seedling production in three southern pine species.

Embryogenic cultures of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.), slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.), longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) and slash pine x longleaf pine hybrids were initiated from immature seeds on an initiation medium containing 13.57 microM 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and 2.22 microM benzylaminopurine. Embryogenic cultures proliferated and somatic embryos developed, matured and germinated following a modified protocol and media originally developed for radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don.) somatic seedling production. A discrete, light-sensitive pre-germination stage and a later germination (radicle emergence) stage were identified by the differential response of somatic embryos to light of different wavelengths. Different light quality treatments were applied during the pre-germination and germination steps, using cool white fluorescent bulbs or light-emitting diodes (LEDs), or both. In general, red wavelengths provided by LEDs during these steps resulted in higher frequencies of somatic embryo germination (up to 64%) and conversion (up to 50%), longer tap roots and more first-order lateral roots than the standard cool white fluorescent treatments or treatment with blue wavelengths from LEDs. In addition, exposure to red light allowed germination of somatic embryos of some clones that failed to produce germinants under fluorescent light. Germination and conversion were further enhanced by sequential application of cool white fluorescent light and red light, resulting in up to 100% germination and conversion in one experiment. Longleaf pine somatic embryos were especially responsive to the light quality treatments, resulting in the first report of somatic seedling production for this species.

Somatic embryogenesis in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.): improving culture initiation with abscisic acid and silver nitrate.

Loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.) culture initiation was improved by the addition of abscisic acid (ABA) (3.7 micro M), silver nitrate (20 micro M), and guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate, 8-bromo-, sodium salt (10 micro M) to the medium and by raising cytokinin levels in the presence of 50 mg/l activated carbon (AC). Basal medium contained modified 1/2-P6 salts, 50 mg/l AC, Cu and Zn added to compensate for adsorption by AC, 1.5% maltose, 2% myo-inositol, 500 mg/l casamino acids, 450 mg/l glutamine, 2 mg/l alpha-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), 0.55 mg/l 6-benzylaminopurine (BA), 0.53 mg/l kinetin, and 2 g/l Gelrite. Across 32 open-pollinated families initiation ranged from 0 to 53.4%, with an average of 17.9%. Further optimization of cytokinins to 0.63 mg/l BA and 0.61 mg/l kinetin along with the removal of ABA maintained initiation at 18.2% across 19 families. Survival of 2001 new initiations was tracked for 4-6 months. Survival averaged 28.8%. A test of 68 new initiations tracked closely for 4 months demonstrated that at least 80% of the cultures lost did not grow after transfer to the multiplication media, suggesting that many new initiations abort during the initiation process.

Brassinolide improves embryogenic tissue initiation in conifers and rice.

Somatic embryogenesis (SE), the most promising technology for the large-scale production of high-value coniferous trees from advanced breeding and genetic engineering programs, is expected to play an important role in increasing productivity, sustainability, and the uniformity of future U.S. forests. To be successful for commercial use, SE technology must work with a variety of genetically diverse trees. Initiation in loblolly pine ( Pinus taeda L.), our main focus species, is often recalcitrant for desirable genotypes. Initiation percentages of loblolly pine, Douglas-fir [ Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco], and Norway spruce ( Picea abies L., Karst.) were improved through the use of brassinolide. Brassinosteroids, which include brassinolide, are a relatively new group of natural plant growth regulators that are found in many plant species. They have been shown to have diverse, tissue-specific, and species-specific effects, including the stimulation of cell elongation and ethylene production and increasing resistance to abiotic stress. In our media, brassinolide was effective at concentrations ranging from 0.005-0.25 micro M. Using control medium (no brassinolide) and brassinolide-supplemented (0.1 micro M) medium, we achieved improved initiation percentages in loblolly pine, Douglas-fir, Norway spruce, and rice-15.0% to 30.1%, 16.1% to 36.3%, 34.6% to 47.4%, and 10%, respectively. Brassinolide increased the weight of loblolly pine embryogenic tissue by 66% and stimulated initiation in the more recalcitrant families of loblolly pine and Douglas-fir, thus compensating somewhat for genotypic differences in initiation. Initiation percentages in loblolly pine were improved through the combination of modified 1/2-P6 salts, 50 mg/l activated carbon (AC), adjusted levels of Cu and Zn (to compensate for adsorption by AC), 1.5% maltose, 2% myo-inositol (to raise the osmotic level, partially simulating the megagametophyte environment), 500 mg/l casamino acids, 450 mg/l glutamine, 2 mg/l alpha-naphthaleneacetic acid, 0.63 mg/l 6-benzylaminopurine, 0.61 mg/l kinetin, 3.4 mg/l silver nitrate, 10 micro M cGMP, 0.1 micro M brassinolide, and 2 g/l Gelrite. Across 12 open-pollinated families of loblolly pine, initiation percentages ranged from 2.5% to 50.7%, averaging 22.5%.