Structural Characterization of Polygonatum Cyrtonema Polysaccharide and Its Immunomodulatory Effects on Macrophages.

A neutral Polygonatum cyrtonema polysaccharide (NPCP) was isolated and purified from Polygonatum cyrtonema by various chromatographic techniques, including DEAE-52 and Sephadex-G100 chromatography. The structure of NPCP was characterized by HPLC, HPGPC, GC-MS, FT-IR, NMR, and SEM. Results showed that NPCP is composed of glucose (55.4%) and galactose (44.6%) with a molecular weight of 3.2 kDa, and the sugar chain of NPCP was →1)-α-D-Glc-(4→1)-ß-D-Gal-(3→. In vitro bioactivity experiments demonstrated that NPCP significantly enhanced macrophages proliferation and phagocytosis while inhibiting the M1 polarization induced by LPS as well as the M2 polarization induced by IL-4 and IL-13 in macrophages. Additionally, NPCP suppressed the secretion of IL-6 and TNF-α in both M1 and M2 cells but promoted the secretion of IL-10. These results suggest that NPCP could serve as an immunomodulatory agent with potential applications in anti-inflammatory therapy.

Interpreting the Mechanism of Active Ingredients in Polygonati Rhizoma in Treating Depression by Combining Systemic Pharmacology and In Vitro Experiments.

Polygonati Rhizoma (PR) has certain neuroprotective effects as a homology of medicine and food. In this study, systematic pharmacology, molecular docking, and in vitro experiments were integrated to verify the antidepressant active ingredients in PR and their mechanisms. A total of seven compounds in PR were found to be associated with 45 targets of depression. Preliminarily, DFV docking with cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2) showed good affinity. In vitro, DFV inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation of BV-2 cells, reversed amoeba-like morphological changes, and increased mitochondrial membrane potential. DFV reversed the malondialdehyde (MDA) overexpression and superoxide dismutase (SOD) expression inhibition in LPS-induced BV-2 cells and decreased interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and IL-6 mRNA expression levels in a dose-dependent manner. DFV inhibited both mRNA and protein expression levels of COX2 induced by LPS, and the activation of NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) and caspase1 was suppressed, thus exerting an antidepressant effect. This study proves that DFV may be an important component basis for PR to play an antidepressant role.

Polysaccharides from Polygonatum kingianum Collett & Hemsl ameliorated fatigue by regulating NRF2/HO-1/NQO1 and AMPK/PGC-1α/TFAM signaling pathways, and gut microbiota.

Polygonatum kingianum Coll & Hemsl is an important Chinese medicine used for enhancing physical function and anti-fatigue, and polysaccharides (PKPs) are considered as the main bioactive components. However, the mechanisms through which PKPs exert their anti-fatigue effects are not fully understood. This study aimed more comprehensively to explore the anti-fatigue mechanisms of PKPs, focusing on metabolism, protein expression, and gut flora, by using exhaustive swimming experiments in mice. Results showed a significant increase in the exhaustive swimming time of the mice treated with PKPs, especially in the high-dose group (200 mg/kg/day). Further studies showed that PKPs remarkably improves several fatigue-related physiological indices. Additionally, 16S rRNA sequence analysis showed that PKPs increased antioxidant bacteria (e.g., g_norank_f_Muribaculaceae) and the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), while reducing the abundance of harmful bacteria (e.g., g_Escherichia-Shigella and g_Helicobacter). PKPs also mitigated oxidative stress through activating the NRF2/HO-1 signaling pathway, and promoted energy metabolism by upregulating the expression of AMPK/PGC-1α/TFAM signaling pathway proteins. This research may offer theoretical support for incorporating PKPs as a novel dietary supplement in functional foods targeting anti-fatigue properties.

Isolation, Purification, Fractionation, and Hepatoprotective Activity of Polygonatum Polysaccharides.

In this study, three homogeneous fractions, PSP-N-b-1, PSP-N-b-2, and PSP-N-c-1, were obtained from an aqueous extract of Polygonatum using DEAE cellulose column chromatography, CL-6B agarose gel chromatography, and Sephadex G100 chromatography. Their monosaccharide compositions and molecular weights were analyzed. The results revealed that PSP-N-b-1, PSP-N-b-2, and PSP-N-c-1 are primarily composed of six monosaccharides: Man (mannose), GlcA (glucuronic acid), Rha (rhamnose), GalA (galacturonic acid), Glc (glucose), and Ara (arabinose), with molecular weights of 6.3 KDa, 5.78 KDa, and 3.45 KDa, respectively. Furthermore, we observed that Polygonatum polysaccharides exhibited protective effects against CCL4-induced liver damage in HepG2 cells in vitro, operating through both anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Our research findings suggest that Polygonatum polysaccharides may emerge as a promising option in the development of hepatoprotective drugs or functional foods with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.

Interaction between lactic acid bacteria and Polygonatum sibiricum saponins and its application to microencapsulated co-delivery.

This study aimed to investigate the interaction between L.casei and L.bulgaricus with Polygonatum sibiricum saponins (PSS) and to explore the co-microencapsulation to reduce their loss rate during storage and consumption. 1% PSS was added to the culture broth, and it was found that the growth and metabolism of the strains were accelerated, especially in the compound probiotic group, indicating that PSS has potential for prebiotics. LC-MS observed significant differences in the composition and content of saponins in PSS. The metabolomics results suggest that the addition of PSS resulted in significant changes in the metabolites of probiotics. In addition, it was found that the combination of probiotics and PSS may have stronger hypoglycemic ability (ɑ-glucosidase, HepG2). Finally, a co-microencapsulated delivery system was constructed using zein and isomaltooligosaccharide. This system can achieve more excellent resistance of probiotics and PSS in gastrointestinal fluids, effectively transporting both to the small intestine.

Enhanced hypoglycemic effects of konjac glucomannan combined with Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua polysaccharide in complete nutritional liquid diet fed type 2 diabetes mice.

In our aging society, dysphagia and malnutrition are growing concerns, necessitating intervention. Liquid nutrition support offers a practical solution for traditional dietary issues, but it raises a key issue: the potential for post-meal glucose spikes impacting efficacy. This study examined the effects of supplementation of Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua polysaccharide (PCP), konjac glucomannan (KGM) and their combination on acute phase postprandial glycemic response and long-term glucose metabolism in T2DM mice on a complete nutritional liquid diet. KGM was more effective in reducing postprandial glucose response, while PCP was more prominent in ameliorating long-term glucose metabolism. The KGM-PCP combination demonstrated superior outcomes in fasting blood glucose, insulin, and glucose homeostasis. PCP and KGM also influenced the composition and abundance of the gut microbiome, with the H-PCP group showing optimal performance. Moreover, the KGM-PCP combination improved body weight, lipid homeostasis, and liver health the most. PCP potentially regulates glycemia through metabolic pathways, while KGM improves glycemic metabolism by reducing postprandial glucose levels in response to viscous intestinal contents. This research identifies the structure, viscosity properties, and hypoglycemic effects of KGM and PCP in complete nutritional liquid diet fed T2DM mice, enabling their strategic utilization as hypoglycemic components in nutritional administration and glycemic regulation.

Distinct toxic effects, gene expression profiles, and phytohormone responses of Polygonatum cyrtonema exposed to two different antibiotics.

The excessive usage of veterinary antibiotics has raised significant concerns regarding their environmental hazard and agricultural impact when entering surface water and soil. Animal waste serves as a primary source of organic fertilizer for intensive large-scale agricultural cultivation, including the widely utilized medicinal and edible plant, Polygonatum cyrtonem. In this study, we employed a novel plant stress tissue culture technology to investigate the toxic effects of tetracycline hydrochloride (TCH) and sulfadiazine (SDZ) on P. cyrtonema. TCH and SDZ exhibited varying degrees of influence on plant growth, photosynthesis, and the reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging system. Flavonoid levels increased following exposure to TCH and SDZ. The biosynthesis and signaling pathways of the growth hormones auxin and gibberellic acid were suppressed by both antibiotics, while the salicylic acid-mediated plant stress response was specifically induced in the case of SDZ. Overall, the study unveiled both common and unique responses at physiological, biochemical, and molecular levels in P. cyrtonema following exposure to two distinct types of antibiotics, providing a foundational framework for comprehensively elucidating the precise toxic effects of antibiotics and the versatile adaptive mechanisms in plants.

Isolation, purification, and physicochemical characterization of Polygonatum polysaccharide and its protective effect against CCl4-induced liver injury via Nrf2 and NF-κB signaling pathways.

This study aimed to provide scientific evidence that Polygonatum polysaccharide can be developed as a dietary supplement and medication for treating liver injuries. A water-soluble polysaccharide (PSP-N-c-1), with an average molecular weight of 3.45 kDa, was isolated and purified from the water extract of Polygonatum using DEAE cellulose column chromatography, CL-6B agarose gel chromatography, and Sephadex G100 chromatography. High-performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy analyses revealed that PSP-N-c-1 might be linear α-(1 â†’ 4)-glucans with α-Glcp residues linked to the backbone at C-6. In vitro experiments revealed that PSP-N-c-1 exhibited protective effects against CCl4-induced damage in HepG2 cells. In vivo experiments demonstrated that PSP-N-c-1 exhibited a hepatoprotective effect by enhancing antioxidant enzyme activity, inhibiting lipid peroxidation, and reducing the activity of pro-inflammatory mediators. Besides, PSP-N-c-1 could attenuate oxidative stress and inflammatory responses by activating the Nrf2-mediated signaling pathways and regulating the TLR4-mediated NF-κB signaling pathways. These findings demonstrated that PSP-N-c-1 may serve as a supplement for alleviating chemical liver damage.

Structure characterization of an agavin-type fructan isolated from Polygonatum cyrtonema and its effect on the modulation of the gut microbiota in vitro.

The herbal medicine Polygonatum cyrtonema is highly regarded in China for its medicinal and dietary properties. However, further research is needed to elucidate the structure of its polysaccharide and understand how it promotes human health by modulating the gut microbiota. This study aims to investigate a homogeneous polysaccharide (PCP95-1-1) from Polygonatum cyrtonema and assess its susceptibility to digestion as well as its utilization by intestinal microbiota. The results confirmed that PCP95-1-1 is an agavin-type fructan, which possesses two fructose chains, namely ß-(2 â†’ 6) and ß-(2 â†’ 1) fructosyl-fructose, attached to the sucrose core, and has branches of ß-D-Fruf residues. Moreover, PCP95-1-1 demonstrated resistance to digestion and maintained its reducing sugar content throughout the digestive system, indicating it could reach the gut without being digested. In vitro fermentation of PCP95-1-1 significantly decreased the pH value (p < 0.05) while notably increasing the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), confirming its utilization by human gut microbiota. Additionally, PCP95-1-1 exhibited a significant ability (p < 0.05) to beneficial bacteria such as Megamonas and Bifidobacterium, while reducing the presence of facultative or conditional pathogens such as Escherichia-Shigella and Klebsiella at the genus level. Consequently, PCP95-1-1 has the potential to positively influence physical well-being by modulating the gut microbiota environment and can be developed as a functional food.

Identification of carbohydrate in Polygonatum kingianum Coll. et Hemsl and inhibiting oxidative stress.

The specific structure of Polygonatum kingianum Coll. et Hemsl polysaccharide (PKP) has been rarely reported. In this study, an inulin-type fructan PKP-1, was extracted and purified from Polygonatum kingianum Coll. et Hemsl, and its structural characteristics and antioxidants activity were evaluated. The molecular weights of PKP-1 was determined to be 4.802 kDa. Monosaccharide composition analysis evidenced that PKP-1 was composed of galactose, glucose and fructose in a molar ratio of 0.8 %:7.2 %:92.0 %. Glycosidic linkage and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) analysis revealed that PKP-1 exhibited a primary sugar residue linkage of →1-ß-d-Fruf-2→2,6-ß-d-Fruf-1→, where ß-d-Fruf-2→ acts as the side chain and links to the C-6 position of →2,6-ß-d-Fruf-1→. In vitro antioxidant activity assays demonstrated that PKP-1 enhanced the mitigation of hepatic oxidative stress in HepG2 cells induced by free fatty acids. This effect was marked by increased enzymatic activities of superoxidase dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), along with elevated glutathione (GSH) levels. These findings indicate that PKP-1 could be used as a potential natural antioxidant.

Liposomes Enhance the Immunological Activity of Polygonatum Cyrtonema Hua Polysaccharides.

Poor stability and difficult uptake of natural polysaccharides have been the main problems in their application. The purpose of this study was to optimize the preparation conditions of Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua polysaccharides liposomes (PCPL) and to investigate the immune enhancement activity of PCPL in vitro and in vivo, with a view to discovering new ways of natural polysaccharide application. The optimal preparation conditions of PCPL were as follows: the adding amount of Tween 80 of 0.5 %, the ultrasound time of 2 min and the ultrasound times of once. Under these conditions, the entrapment efficiency, drug loading rate and particle size of PCPL were 38.033 %±0.050, 2.172 %±0.003 and 146 nm, which indicated that PCPL with small particle size could be prepared by the reverse-phase evaporation method. Furthermore, PCPL promoted proliferation, phagocytosis, and secretion of nitric oxide and related cytokines in RAW264.7 cells. Moreover, PCPL improved spleen and thymus indices, increased the number or proportion of red blood cells, platelets, and lymphocytes in the blood, and ameliorated spleen and thymus atrophy in immunosuppressed mice. This study provides a new idea for applying Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua polysaccharides (PCP) and references for studying other polysaccharides.

Review of studies on polysaccharides, lignins and small molecular compounds from three Polygonatum Mill. (Asparagaceae) spp. in crude and processed states.

Since ancient times, Polygonatum Mill. (Asparagaceae) has been utilized as a medicinal and culinary resource in China. Its efficacy in treating various illnesses has been well documented. Traditional processing involves the Nine-Steam-Nine-Bask method, which results in a reduction of toxicity and enhanced effectiveness of Polygonatum. Many substances, such as polysaccharides, lignins, saponins, homoisoflavones, alkaloids, and others, have been successfully isolated from Polygonatum. This review presents the research progress on the chemical composition of three crude and processed Polygonatum, including Polygonatum sibiricum Redouté (P. sibiricum), Polygonatum kingianum Collett & Hemsl (P. kingianum), and Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua (P. cyrtonema). The review also includes the pharmacology of Polygonatum, specifically on the pharmacology of polysaccharides both before and after processing. Its objective is to provide a foundation for uncovering the significance of the processing procedure, and to facilitate the development and utilization of Polygonatum in clinical practice.

Fingerprinting and characterization of the polysaccharides from Polygonatum odoratum and the in vitro fermented effects on Lactobacillus johnsonii.

Polygonatum odoratum (Yu-Zhu) can be utilized to treat the digestive and respiratory illness. Previous studies have revealed that the underlying therapeutic mechanism of P. odoratum polysaccharides (POPs) is associated with remodeling the gut microbiota. However, POPs in terms of the chemical composition and fermentation activities have been understudied. Here we developed the three-level fingerprinting approaches to characterize the structures of POPs and probed into the beneficial effects on promoting the growth and fermentation of Lactobacillus johnsonii. POPs were prepared by water decoction followed by alcohol sedimentation, while trifluoroacetic acid under different conditions to prepare the hydrolyzed oligosaccharides and monosaccharides. POPs exhibited three main molecular distribution of 601-620 kDa, 4.12-6.09 kDa, and 3.57-6.02 kDa. Hydrolyzed oligosaccharides with degree of polymerization (DP) 2-13 got primarily characterized by analyzing the rich fragmentation information obtained by hydrophilic interaction chromatography/ion mobility-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HILIC/IM-QTOF-MS). Amongst them, the DP5 oligosaccharide was characterized as 1,6,6-kestopentaose. The molecular ratio of Fru: Ara: Glc: Gal: Xyl was 87.72: 0.30: 11.56: 0.19: 0.23. In vitro fermentation demonstrated that 4.5 mg/mL of POPs could significantly promote the growth of L. johnsonii. Co-cultivated with 4.5 mg/mL of POPs, L. johnsonii exhibited stronger antimicrobial activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae. The concentrations of short-chain fatty acids in the POPs-lactobacilli fermented products, including acetic acid, isobutyric acid, and isovaleric acid, were increased. Conclusively, POPs represent the promising prebiotic candidate to facilitate lactobacilli, which is associated with exerting the health benefits.

'Nine Steaming Nine Sun-drying' processing enhanced properties of Polygonatum kingianum against inflammation, oxidative stress and hyperglycemia.

BACKGROUND: Polygonatum kingianum Coll. & Hemsl (PK), a prominent medicine and food homology plant, has been consumed as a decoction from boiling water for thousands of years. 'Nine Steaming Nine Sun-drying' processing has been considered an effective method for enriching tonic properties, but studies investigating such impacts on PK and underlying mechanisms are extremely rare. RESULTS: We first demonstrated substantial improvements in the anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory and anti-hyperglycemia effects of the Nine Steaming Nine Sun-drying processed PK water extracts compared with crude PK in cell models (i.e., HepG2 and Raw 264.7 cells). We then integrated foodomics and network pharmacology analysis to uncover the key compounds responsible for the improved benefits. A total of 551 metabolites of PK extracts were identified, including polyphenols, flavonoids, alkaloids, and organic acids. During processing, 204 metabolites were enhanced, and 32 metabolites were recognized as key constituents of processed PK responsible for the improved health-promoting activities, which may affect PI3K-Akt-, MAPK-, and HIF-1 pathways. We further confirmed the high affinity between identified key constituents of processed PK and their predicted acting targets using molecular docking. CONCLUSION: Our results provide novel insights into bioactive compounds of processed PK, elaborating the rationality of processing from the perspective of tonic effects. Consuming processed PK could be an efficacious strategy to combat the high prevalence of metabolic diseases that currently affect millions of people worldwide. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Optimized acid hydrolysis conditions for better characterization the structure of inulin-type fructan from Polygonatum sibiricum.

Polygonatum sibiricum is an edible plant species in China known for its abundant polysaccharides. However, correlations between its analytical methods and fine structure have not been established. This is usually due to incomplete cleavage of the glycosidic linkages and instability of hydrolysis. In this study, a new optimal acid hydrolysis method for monosaccharide composition (2 M H2SO4 for 1 h) and methylation analysis (2 mol TFA hydrolysis at 100 °C for 1 h) was developed for characterization of inulin-type fructans, resulting in significantly improved monosaccharide recovery and providing more reliable methylation data. The effectiveness of this method was demonstrated through its application to the study of polysaccharide from P. sibiricum (IPS-70S). The results showed that IPS-70S with a molecular weight of 3.6 kDa is an inulin-type fructans consisting of fructose and glucose in a molar ratio of 27:1. Methylation and NMR analysis indicated that IPS-70S contains →2)-Fruf-(6 â†’ or →2)-Fruf-(1 â†’ with branching →1,6)-Fruf-(2 â†’ and terminates in Glcp-(1 â†’ or Fruf-(2→. In conclusion, optimal acid hydrolysis applicable to the specific polysaccharides contribute to its structurally characterized. The newly optimized acid hydrolysis method for monosaccharide composition and methylation analysis offers a reliable and effective approach to the structural characterization of inulin-type fructans from P. sibiricum. Providing reliable basis for the overall work of NMR analysis and structural analysis, which have potential significance in the field of polysaccharides structural characterization.

Structural characterization and in vitro fermentation properties of polysaccharides from Polygonatum cyrtonema.

Polysaccharides, the major active ingredient and quality control indicator of Polygomatum cyrtonema are in need of elucidation for its in vitro fermentation characteristics. This study aimed to investigate the structural characteristics of the homogeneous Polygomatum cyrtonema polysaccharide (PCP-80 %) and its effects on human intestinal bacteria and short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) production during the in vitro fermentation. The results revealed that PCP-80 % was yielded in 10.44 % and the molecular weight was identified to be 4.1 kDa. PCP-80 % exhibited a smooth, porous, irregular sheet structure and provided good thermal stability. The analysis of Gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) suggested that PCP-80 % contained six glycosidic bonds, with 2,1-linked-Fruf residues accounted for a largest proportion. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) provided additional evidence that the partial structure of PCP-80 % probably consists of →1)-ß-D-Fruf-(2 â†’ as the main chain, accompanied by side chains dominated by →6)-ß-D-Fruf-(2→. Besides, PCP-80 % promoted the production of SCFAs and increased the relative abundance of beneficial bacteria such as Megamonas, Bifidobacterium and Phascolarctobacterium during in vitro colonic fermentation, which changed the composition of the intestinal microbiota. These findings indicated that Polygomatum cyrtonema polysaccharides were able to modulate the structure and composition of the intestinal bacteria flora and had potential probiotic properties.

Research on the Impact of Deep Eutectic Solvent and Hot-Water Extraction Methods on the Structure of Polygonatum sibiricum Polysaccharides.

Deep eutectic solvent (DES) and hot-water extraction (HWE) methods were utilized to extract polysaccharides from Polygonatum sibiricum, referred to as DPsP and WPsP, respectively. The extracted polysaccharides were purified using the Superdex-200 dextran gel purification system, resulting in three components for each type of polysaccharide. The structures of these components were characterized. The molecular weight analysis revealed that DPsP components had slightly larger molecular weights compared with WPsP, with DPsP-A showing a slightly higher dispersity index and broader molecular weight distribution. The main monosaccharide components of both DPsP and WPsP were mannose and glucose, while DPsP exhibited a slightly greater variety of sugar components compared with WPsP. FTIR analysis demonstrated characteristic polysaccharide absorption peaks in all six PSP components, with a predominance of acidic pyranose sugars. NMR analysis revealed the presence of pyranose sugars, including rhamnose and sugar aldehyde acids, in both DPsP-B and WPsP-A. DPsP-B primarily exhibited ß-type glycosidic linkages, while WPsP-A predominantly displayed α-type glycosidic linkages, with a smaller fraction being ß-type. These findings indicated differences in monosaccharide composition and structure between PSPs extracted using different methods. Overall, this study provided experimental evidence for future research on the structure-function relationship of PSPs.

Effects of Solid Fermentation on Polygonatum cyrtonema Polysaccharides: Isolation, Characterization and Bioactivities.

Polygonati Rhizoma is a widely used traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) with complex pre-processing steps. Fermentation is a common method for processing TCM to reduce herb toxicity and enhance their properties and/or produce new effects. Here, in this study, using Bacillus subtilis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we aimed to evaluate the potential application of solid fermentation in isolating different functional polysaccharides from Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua. With hot water extraction, ethanol precipitation, DEAE anion exchange chromatography and gel filtration, multiple neutral and acidic polysaccharides were obtained, showing different yields, content, compositions and functional groups after fermentation. Combining in vitro experiments and in vivo aging and immunosuppressed mouse models, we further compared the antioxidant and immunomodulating bioactivities of these polysaccharides and found a prominent role of a natural polysaccharide (BNP) from fermented P. cyrtonema via Bacillus subtilis in regulating intestinal antioxidant defense and immune function, which may be a consequence of the ability of BNP to modulate the homeostasis of gut microbiota. Thus, this work provides evidence for the further development and utilization of P. cyrtonema with fermentation, and reveals the potential values of BNP in the treatment of intestinal disorders.

Comprehensive Quality Evaluation of Polygonatum cyrtonema and Its Processed Product: Chemical Fingerprinting, Determination and Bioactivity.

Processing of Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) is a traditional pharmaceutical technology in Chinese medicine. Traditionally, proper processing of CHMs is necessary to meet the specific clinical requirements of different syndromes. Processing with black bean juice is considered one of the most important techniques in traditional Chinese pharmaceutical technology. Despite the long-standing practice of processing Polygonatum cyrtonema Hua (PCH), there is little research on the changes in chemical constituents and bioactivity before and after processing. This study investigated the influence of black bean juice processing on the chemical composition and bioactivity of PCH. The results revealed significant changes in both composition and contents during processing. Saccharide and saponin content significantly increased after processing. Moreover, the processed samples exhibited considerably stronger DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging capacity, as well as FRAP-reducing capacity, compared to the raw samples. The IC50 values for DPPH were 1.0 ± 0.12 mg/mL and 0.65 ± 0.10 mg/mL for the raw and processed samples, respectively. For ABTS, the IC50 values were 0.65 ± 0.07 mg/mL and 0.25 ± 0.04 mg/mL, respectively. Additionally, the processed sample demonstrated significantly higher inhibitory activity against α-glucosidase and α-amylase (IC50 = 1.29 ± 0.12 mg/mL and 0.48 ± 0.04 mg/mL) compared to the raw sample (IC50 = 5.58 ± 0.22 mg/mL and 0.80 ± 0.09 mg/mL). These findings underscore the significance of black bean processing in enhancing the properties of PCH and lay the foundation for its further development as a functional food. The study elucidates the role of black bean processing in PCH and offers valuable insights for its application.

Research progress in steroidal saponins from the genus Polygonatum: Chemical components, biosynthetic pathways and pharmacological effects.

The genus Polygonatum Mill. belongs to the Liliaceae family, which is widely distributed all over the world. Modern studies have found that Polygonatum plants are very rich in chemical compounds such as saponins, polysaccharides and flavonoids. Steroidal saponins are the most commonly studied saponins in the genus Polygonatum and a total of 156 compounds have been isolated from 10 species of the genus. These molecules possess antitumor, immunoregulatory, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiviral, hypoglycemic, lipid-lowering and anti-osteoporotic activities. In this review, we summarize recent advances in studies of the chemical constituents of steroidal saponins from Polygonatum, including their structural characteristics, possible biosynthetic pathways and pharmacological effects. Then, the relationship between the structure and some physiological activities is considered. This review aims to provide reference for further exploitation and utilization of the genus Polygonatum.