Freedom-deprived women: social representations of prison, violence, and their consequences.

OBJECTIVE: To understand the social representations that women deprived of their freedom have of imprisonment, violence, and their consequences. METHOD: An exploratory-descriptive qualitative study with 15 women from a female penitentiary in the State of São Paulo, Brazil. Semistructured interview was used. Data submitted to thematic content analysis and interpreted under Social Representations. RESULTS: Categories identified: "Enclosed and abandoned in the prison environment": loss of contact with relatives, difficulties living in prison, and right to be reinserted into society. "Imprisoned in a cycle of social inequality": lack of support, access to education and employment opportunities, leading them to engage in new illicit activities and consequent imprisonment. FINAL CONSIDERATIONS: The social representations of prisoners suggest that they perceive themselves to be doubly "imprisoned", either from the objective point of view, as an individual deprived of freedom; or subjective, as citizens who have their rights disrespected and their possibilities of rehabilitation limited by the prison system.

Defining an age cut-off for older offenders: a systematic review of literature.

PURPOSE: In the literature, 65 years is commonly used as the age to designate an older person in the community. When studying older prisoners, there is much variation. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how researchers define older offenders and for what reasons. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH: The authors reviewed articles on health and well-being of older offenders to assess terminology used to describe this age group, the chosen age cut-offs distinguishing younger offenders from older offenders, the arguments provided to support this choice as well as the empirical base cited in this context. FINDINGS: The findings show that the age cut-off of 50 years and the term "older" were most frequently used by researchers in the field. The authors find eight main arguments given to underscore the use of specific age cut-offs delineating older offenders. They outline the reasoning provided for each argument and evaluate it for its use to define older offenders. ORIGINALITY/VALUE: With this review, it is hoped to stimulate the much-needed discussion advancing towards a uniform definition of the older offender. Such a uniform definition would make future research more comparable and ensure that there is no ambiguity when researchers state that the study population is "older offenders".

Predicting Sexual Offenders' Specialization/Versatility: The Role of Impulsivity and Moral Reasoning.

The main purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the predictive ability of impulsivity and moral reasoning on offending specialization/versatility. The latter was measured using the diversity index which calculates the amount of variation within an individual's criminal history. The sample consisted of 88 individuals convicted of sexual offenses incarcerated in a Portuguese prison. Group comparisons and multiple linear regression analyses on untransformed and corrected versions of the diversity index were conducted. Overall, the different versions of the diversity index presented disparate results. Individuals were found to be generally alike, but those convicted of rape tended to be more versatile than those who molested extrafamilial children. Moral reasoning was the strongest predictor of offending specialization/versatility, while impulsivity was mostly not statistically significant. A better understanding of these predictors' roles on offending specialization/versatility, as it relates to recidivism, is important to tailor successful interventions.

Negotiating the Maximum-Security Offender Identity: Experiences From Incarcerated Women.

The representation of women classified as maximum-security offenders continues to be a challenge due to paucity of research regarding their experiences. Generally, their stories are masked under the experiences of the other categories of incarcerated women. Drawing from a larger study conducted with incarcerated women in a South African correctional centre in Johannesburg, in this article I provide a thematic analysis of in-depth interviews on the lived experiences of negotiating the maximum-security offender identity by 13 women. The results suggest that the maximum-security offender identity is associated with rejection, dehumanisation, denial of agency, restricted movement, and labelling. The article also highlights the significance of providing agency to incarcerated women in deconstructing stereotypes that represent them as angry and uneducated with no value to society. A more balanced repositioning of their stories emerges as they get an opportunity to construct their own experiences.

Freedom-deprived women: social representations of prison, violence, and their consequences / Mujeres privadas de libertad: representaciones sociales de la prisión, la violencia y sus consecuencias / Mulheres privadas de liberdade: representações sociais de prisão, violência e suas consequências

ABSTRACT Objective: To understand the social representations that women deprived of their freedom have of imprisonment, violence, and their consequences. Method: An exploratory-descriptive qualitative study with 15 women from a female penitentiary in the State of São Paulo, Brazil. Semistructured interview was used. Data submitted to thematic content analysis and interpreted under Social Representations. Results: Categories identified: "Enclosed and abandoned in the prison environment": loss of contact with relatives, difficulties living in prison, and right to be reinserted into society. "Imprisoned in a cycle of social inequality": lack of support, access to education and employment opportunities, leading them to engage in new illicit activities and consequent imprisonment. Final considerations: The social representations of prisoners suggest that they perceive themselves to be doubly "imprisoned", either from the objective point of view, as an individual deprived of freedom; or subjective, as citizens who have their rights disrespected and their possibilities of rehabilitation limited by the prison system.

RESUMEN Objetivo: Comprender las representaciones sociales que las mujeres privadas de su libertad tienen sobre la prisión, la violencia y sus consecuencias. Método: Estudio cualitativo exploratorio-descriptivo realizado con 15 mujeres de una cárcel femenina del Estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Se utilizó una entrevista semiestructurada. Los datos se sometieron al análisis de contenido temático y fueron interpretados a la luz de las Representaciones Sociales. Resultados: Categorías identificadas: "Enclaustradas y abandonadas en el ámbito penitenciario": pérdida de contacto con los familiares, dificultades de convivencia en la prisión y en lo que se refiere al derecho a ser reintegradas en la sociedad. "Encarceladas en un ciclo de desigualdad social": falta de apoyo, acceso a la educación y oportunidades de empleo, llevándolas a involucrarse en nuevas actividades ilícitas y por consiguiente volver a ser encarceladas. Consideraciones Finales: Las representaciones sociales de las detenidas sugieren que ellas se sienten doblemente "encarceladas", tanto desde el punto de vista objetivo, como individuo privado de su libertad, como del subjetivo, ciudadanas cuyos derechos no son respetados y sus posibilidades de rehabilitación son limitadas por el sistema penitenciario.

RESUMO Objetivo: Compreender as representações sociais que mulheres privadas de liberdade têm sobre prisão, violência e suas consequências. Método: Estudo qualitativo exploratório-descritivo realizado com 15 mulheres de uma penitenciária feminina do estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Foi utilizada entrevista semiestruturada. Dados submetidos à análise de conteúdo temática e interpretados à luz das Representações Sociais. Resultados: Categorias identificadas: "Enclausuradas e abandonadas no ambiente prisional": perda de contato com familiares, dificuldades de convívio na prisão e direito de serem reinseridas na sociedade. "Aprisionadas em um ciclo de desigualdade social": falta de apoio, acesso à educação e oportunidades de emprego, levando-as ao envolvimento em novas atividades ilícitas e consequente aprisionamento. Considerações finais: As representações sociais das detentas sugerem que elas se percebem duplamente "aprisionadas", seja do ponto de vista objetivo, como indivíduo privado de liberdade; ou subjetivo, como cidadãs que têm seus direitos desrespeitados e suas possibilidades de reabilitação limitadas pelo sistema prisional.

Bacteriologically-confirmed pulmonary tuberculosis in an Ethiopian prison: Prevalence from screening of entrant and resident prisoners.

BACKGROUND: Pulmonary Tuberculosis (PTB) is a major health problem in prisons. Multiple studies of TB in regional Ethiopian prisons have assessed prevalence and risk factors but have not examined recently implemented screening programs for TB in prisons. This study compares bacteriologically-confirmed PTB (BC-PTB) prevalence in prison entrants versus residents and identifies risk factors for PTB in Kality prison, a large federal Ethiopian prison located in Addis Ababa, through a study of an enhanced TB screening program. METHODS: Participating prisoners (n = 13,803) consisted of 8,228 entrants screened continuously and 5,575 residents screened in two cross-sectional waves for PTB symptoms, demographics, TB risk factors, and medical history. Participants reporting at least one symptom of PTB were asked to produce sputum which was examined by microscopy for acid-fast bacilli, Xpert MTB/RIF assay and MGIT liquid culture. Prevalence of BC-PTB, defined as evidence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) in sputum by the above methods, was compared in entrants and residents for the study. Descriptive analysis of prevalence was followed by bivariate and multivariate analyses of risk factors. RESULTS: Prisoners were mainly male (86%), young (median age 26 years) and literate (89%). Prevalence of TB symptoms by screening was 17% (2,334/13,803) with rates in residents >5-fold higher than entrants. Prevalence of BC-PTB detected by screening in participating prisoners was 0.16% (22/13,803). Prevalence in residents increased in the second resident screening compared to the first (R1 = 0.10% and R2 = 0.39%, p = 0.027), but remained higher than in entrants (4.3-fold higher during R1 and 3.1-fold higher during R2). Drug resistance (DR) was found in 38% (5/13) of culture-isolated MTB. Risk factors including being ever diagnosed with TB, history of TB contact and low Body Mass Index (BMI) (<18.5) were significantly associated with BC-PTB (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: BC-PTB prevalence was strikingly lower than previously reported from other Ethiopian prisons. PTB appears to be transmitted within this prison based on its higher prevalence in residents than in entrants. Whether a sustained program of PTB screening of entrants and/or residents reduces prevalence of PTB in prisons is not clear from this study, but our findings suggest that resources should be prioritized to resident, rather than entrant, screening due to higher BC-PTB prevalence. Detection of multi- and mono-DR TB in both entrant and resident prisoners warrants regular screening for active TB and adoption of methods to detect drug resistance.

Pretrial Detainees, Sentenced Prisoners, and Treatment Motivation.

A dilemma for corrections practitioners is treatment for pretrial detainees. They are innocent until proven guilty and are not required to take treatment, but many may benefit from intervention. To assess the general level of treatment interest and potential differences, a sample of 221 male remand and sentenced Canadian provincial prisoners completed several Client Evaluation of Self and Treatment (CEST) scales. Prisoner treatment motivation and its correlates were assessed by examining univariate, bivariate, and multivariate effects for demographic attributes, legal factors, risk, perceptions of personal/family/pressure for treatment, and depression. It was found that about 36% to 40% of study subjects expressed moderate to strong motivation for treatment. Age, pressure, and depression were the only correlates consistently associated with treatment motivation. There were no differences found between remand and sentenced prisoners. Results indicated that pretrial detainees have a definite interest in undertaking programming.

Examining Developmental Patterns of Prison Misconduct: An Integrated Model Approach.

Recent prison scholarship has employed an integrated model of the developmental/life-course perspectives and importation model to examine prison misconduct. Using longitudinal data from a large sample of inmates incarcerated in a U.S. prison system, this study attempts to validate and expand recent prison research by systematically examining the relationship among inmate characteristics and misconduct trajectories, particularly for the higher/chronic pattern of misconduct relative to other identified clusters. The results show that smaller groups of inmates have persistent criminal careers and continually engaged in high level of misconduct. In addition, several inmate characteristics associated with prison misconduct can also be useful to distinguishing high-risk inmates/persistent offenders from groups that offend at low rates over time. These findings could provide vital information to prison officials in developing and designing alternative prison services, assistance, and rehabilitation programs based on the misconduct trajectories.

Where Does Your State Stand on Shackling of Pregnant Incarcerated Women?

Pregnant incarcerated women have been identified as a particularly high-risk group and among the most vulnerable women in the United States. The use of shackling or restraints poses health risks to pregnant women and their fetuses. Currently, only 22 states have legislation prohibiting or limiting the shackling of pregnant women. Here we provide an overview of the potential negative health outcomes that can result from shackling pregnant women, especially during labor and birth, and suggest strategies for nurses who wish to promote optimal health care for incarcerated women and to advocate for anti-shackling legislation in their states.

Eliciting Responsivity: Exploring Programming Interests of Federal Inmates as a Function of Security Classification.

Research supports the effectiveness of the Risk-Needs-Responsivity model for reducing criminal recidivism. Yet programming interests of inmates--one facet of responsivity--remain an understudied phenomenon. In the present study, we explored the programming interests of 753 federal inmates housed across three levels of security. Results suggest that inmates, as a group, prefer specific programs over others, and that some of their interests may differ by security level. We discuss possible implications of these findings.

A criminal careers typology of child sexual abusers.

We present a criminal careers typology of child sexual abusers constructed in terms of their offending persistence (persistent vs. limited) and versatility (specialized vs. versatile). Analyses were conducted on the official records of 362 convicted offenders, 213 of whom also provided confidential self-report data on their personal and offending histories. Forty-one percent of the sample were currently serving sentences for their first sexual offense conviction(s) but had at least one prior conviction for a nonsexual offense (limited/versatile); 36.4% had no previous convictions of any kind (limited/specialized); 17.8% had prior convictions for sexual and nonsexual offenses (persistent/versatile); and 4.8% had prior convictions for sexual offenses only (persistent/specialized). These four groups differed on a range of personal and offense-related variables, including abuse histories, sexual orientation, age at first sexual contact with a child, number of victims, duration of sexual involvement with victims, victim gender, and whether victims were familial or nonfamilial. These differences suggest the need to adopt different treatment and prevention strategies that target the specific characteristics of each group.

The clinical profile of high-risk mentally disordered offenders.

PURPOSE: High-risk mentally disordered offenders present a diverse array of clinical characteristics. To contain and effectively treat this heterogeneous population requires a full understanding of the group's clinical profile. This study aimed to identify and validate clusters of clinically coherent profiles within one high-risk mentally disordered population in the UK. METHODS: Latent class analysis (a statistical technique to identify clustering of variance from a set of categorical variables) was applied to 174 cases using clinical diagnostic information to identify the most parsimonious model of best fit. Validity analyses were performed. RESULTS: Three identified classes were a 'delinquent' group (n = 119) characterised by poor educational history, strong criminal careers and high recidivism risk; a 'primary psychopathy' group (n = 38) characterised by good educational profiles and homicide offences and an 'expressive psychopathy' group (n = 17) presenting the lowest risk and characterised by more special educational needs and sexual offences. CONCLUSIONS: Individuals classed as high-risk mentally disordered offenders can be loosely segregated into three discrete subtypes: 'delinquent', 'psychopathic' or 'expressive psychopathic', respectively. These groups represent different levels of risk to society and reflect differing treatment needs.

Processes of intermittency in criminal careers: notes from a Swedish study on life courses and crime.

This article explores the concept of "intermittency" and uses qualitative life history narratives with male offenders from The Stockholm Life Course Project to distinguish between two qualitatively different forms of intermittent offending. Findings suggest that one form of intermittency can be characterized by "breaks" and "pauses" in offending, where the offender for a period of time "holds up" but without attempting to commit to any long-term change in trajectory. The second form can best be understood as incomplete or aborted attempts at desistance, where attempts to change are present but not realized. Perceived or experienced failure to enter conventional roles and engage in conventional practices is highly relevant to understand these attempts. The intermittent zigzag patterns of offending observed in quantitative studies of criminal careers can thus actually entail qualitatively different life course processes of continuity and change. Implications for policy and future research are highlighted.

Endogeneity in prison risk classification.

Security designation tools are a key feature of all prisons in the United States, intended as objective measures of risk that funnel inmates into security levels-to prison environments varying in degree of intrusiveness, restriction, dangerousness, and cost. These tools are mostly (if not all) validated by measuring inmates on a set of characteristics, using scores from summations of that information to assign inmates to prisons of varying security level, and then observing whether inmates assumed more risky did in fact offend more. That approach leaves open the possibility of endogeneity--that the harsher prisons are themselves bringing about higher misconduct and thus biasing coefficients assessing individual risk. The current study assesses this potential bias by following an entry cohort of inmates to more than 100 facilities in the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) and exploiting the substantial variation in classification scores within a given prison that derive from systematic overrides of security-level designations for reasons not associated with risk of misconduct. By estimating pooled models of misconduct along with prison-fixed effects specifications, the data show that a portion of the predictive accuracy thought associated with the risk-designation tool used in BOP was a function of facility-level contamination (endogeneity).

Hepatitis C in prisoners and non-prisoners in Colatina, Espírito Santo, Brazil

The aim of the present work was to compare hepatitis C prevalence, genotypes, and risk factors between prisoners and non-prisoners in the city of Colatina, Espírito Santo, Brazil. This cross-sectional study involved approximately 1,600 residents and 730 prisoners, all of whom were living in Colatina. The percentage of individuals who tested positive for anti-HCV was 0.1% (2/1,600) in the non-prisoner group and 1.0% (7/730) in the prisoner group, confirming a higher risk of hepatitis C in the latter group. The percentage of subjects who progressed to HCV-RNA negative was 11.1% (1/9), confirming the high probability of evolution to chronicity. Genotype 1 was the most predominant genotype found. Factors associated with increased risk of hepatitis C were being male, being institutionalized, having an income of less than three minimum wages, having low educational attainment, and using injected drugs. Alcohol use, pain in the liver, migraine, and reported history of hepatitis were markedly associated with hepatitis C. The prison population tested positive for anti-HCV at a higher rate than the non-prison population.

O objetivo do presente trabalho foi comparar a prevalência, os genótipos e fatores de risco da hepatite C entre a população em geral e os presos na cidade de Colatina, Espírito Santo, Brasil. O presente estudo é transversal e comparou cerca de 1.600 moradores e 730 prisioneiros, todos eles vivendo em Colatina. A prevalência de anticorpos anti-HCV positivo foi de 0,1% (2/1.600), na população em geral, e de 1,0% (7/730) entre os presos, o que confirma o elevado risco nesse grupo. A percentagem de indivíduos que apresentam RNA-HCV negativo foi de 11,1% (1/9), confirmando a alta taxa de evolução para a cronicidade. O genótipo predominante foi o I. Fatores associados ao aumento do risco de hepatite C foram do sexo masculino, sendo institucionalizado, com renda de até três salários mínimos, baixa escolaridade e uso de drogas injetáveis. O uso de álcool, dor no fígado, enxaqueca e relato de histórias de hepatite apresentaram associação significativa com a hepatite C. A população carcerária teve maiores taxas de positividade para o anti-HCV do que a população não-prisional pesquisada.

Recidivism in subgroups of serious juvenile offenders: different profiles, different risks?

BACKGROUND: Research has shown that the treatment of juvenile offenders is most effective when it takes into account the possible risk factors for re-offending. It may be asked whether juvenile offenders can be treated as one homogeneous group, or, if they are divisible into subgroups, whether different risk factors are predictive of recidivism. AIMS AND HYPOTHESES: Our aims were to find out whether serious juvenile offenders may be subdivided into clearly defined subgroups and whether such subgroups might differ in terms of the risk factors that predict recidivism. METHODS: In a sample of 1111 serious juvenile offenders, latent class analysis was used to identify subgroups. For each juvenile offender, 70 risk factors were registered. Severity of recidivism was measured on a 12-point scale. Analysis was then conducted to identify the risk factors that best predicted the different patterns of recidivism. RESULTS: Four distinct subgroups of juvenile offenders were identified: serious violent offenders, violent property offenders, property offenders, and sex offenders. Violent property offenders were the most serious recidivists and had the highest number of risk factors. Serious violent offenders and property offenders were characterised by overt and covert behaviour, respectively. Sex offenders differed from the other three groups in the rarity of their recidivism and in the risk factors that are present. For each of these four subgroups, a different set of risk factors was found to predict severity of recidivism. CONCLUSIONS: Differences in recidivism rates occurred in spite of the fact that most of these youngsters had been in the standard treatment programme offered to serious juvenile offenders in the Netherlands. This was not a treatment outcome study, but the indication that two of the groups identified in our study appeared to be worse after going through this programme, whereas the other two did quite well in terms of recidivism lends weight to our idea that such classification of juvenile offenders may lead to more targeted treatment programmes that would better serve both the general public and the youths concerned.

Toward a developmental taxonomy of adult sexual aggressors of women: antisocial trajectories in youth, mating effort, and sexual criminal activity in adulthood.

Recent studies suggest that sexual aggressors of women are characterized by early- and late-onset antisocial trajectories. However, these studies have not examined the role of mating effort and its role on sexual offending in adulthood. This study examined differences in the level of mating effort of early- and late-onset offenders and the association between mating effort and sexual offending in adulthood. Factor analysis identified two latent constructs of sexuality: mating effort and high sexual drive. Early-onset offenders exhibited significantly higher levels of mating effort and sexual drive. Furthermore, high mating effort and high sexual drive were more strongly associated with an earlier onset and a higher frequency of sexual crimes in adulthood than group membership. This study provided empirical evidence that a developmental taxonomy of early and late onset distinguishes the sexual activity and sexual criminal activity of adult sexual aggressors. The findings are discussed in light of a developmental taxonomy of sexual aggressors of women.

Causas y tendencia de la mortalidad en una prisión española (1994-2009) / Causes and trends of mortality in a Spanish prison (1994-2009)

Fundamento: El conocimiento de las causas de mortalidad puede ser una herramienta valiosa para procurar mejores cuidados de salud a las personas encarceladas. El objetivo del trabajo es describir la mortalidad y su tendencia en nuestro centro. Método: Estudio descriptivo de los fallecimientos ocurridos entre el 01/01/1994 y 31/12/2009. Se compararon mediante el test exacto de Fisher dos periodos de 8 años para valorar cambios en las causas de mortalidad. Previa estandarización indirecta de tasas, comparamos la mortalidad de nuestro centro con la del resto de las prisiones españolas. Mediante un modelo de regresión lineal establecimos la tendencia de las tasas de mortalidad. Resultados: Hubo 59 defunciones, 58 en hombres, con una mediana de edad de 34,9 años (28,7- 40,4). El 64,4% eran VIH+. Desde 1994 hasta 2001 la principal causa de mortalidad fue la infección VIH (48,6%) y la segunda los eventos cardiovasculares (10,8%), mientras que entre 2002 y 2009 los eventos cardiovasculares causaron un 31,8% y la infección VIH un 22,7% (p=0,026). Las tasas crudas de mortalidad anual tuvieron tendencia descendente a razón de 0,485 muertes internos/año (IC 95%: 0,864 a -0,107). Estandarizando tasas corresponderían 42 muertes esperadas en todo el período, con una Razón de Mortalidad Estandarizada de 1,407 (IC 95%: 1,071 a 1,816). Conclusiones: La principal causa de mortalidad fue la enfermedad no-VIH, fundamentalmente por eventos cardiovasculares. La tendencia de la tasa de mortalidad fue descendente, aunque observamos un 40,7% más de defunciones de las que cabría esperar (AU)

Background: There are a few mortality researches in prisons. To know this measure can to be important for take decisions of Public Health. The aim of the paper is to describe mortality and its trend in our prison. Methods: This is a descriptive and retrospective study of the deaths between 01/01/1994 and 31/12/2009. Two periods of 8 years have been compared through exact test of Fisher in order to detect changes in causes of mortality. First of all, we made an indirect standardization of rates and compare mortality in our institution with other Spanish prisons. Through linear regression model we have settled in trends of mortality rates. Results: Had 59 deaths, 58 in men with a median age 34.9 years old (28.7- 40.4). 64,4% were HIV+ . From 1994 to 2001 the main cause of mortality was VIH infection (48.6%) the second one was cardiovascular event (10.8%), while that between 2002 and 2009 this trend have change, cardiovascular event caused (31.8%) and VIH infection (22.07%) (p=0.026).The annual crude mortality rate decreased -0.485 deaths inmates/year (IC 95%: -0.864 to -0.107). Standardizing rates, we get 42 deaths expected for the wholly period, with Standarized Mortality Ratio of 1.407 (I.C. 95%: 1.071 to 1.816). Conclusions: The main cause of mortality has been no-HIV diseases, among these mainly cardiovascular events. The trend of mortality rate has been decreasing although we observe 40.7% plus of deaths than we would expect (AU)