Efficient isolation of Campylobacter bacteriophages from chicken skin, analysis of several isolation protocols.

The application of Campylobacter specific bacteriophages appears as a promising food safety tool for the biocontrol of this pathogen in the poultry meat production chain. However, their isolation is a complicated challenge since their occurrence appears to be low. This work assessed the efficiency of seven protocols for recovering Campylobacter phages from chicken skin samples inoculated at phage loads from 5.0 × 101 to 5.0 × 106 PFU/g. The enrichment of chicken skin in selective Bolton broth containing target isolates was the most efficient procedure, showing a low detection limit of 5.0 × 101 PFU/g and high recovery rates of up to 560%. This method's effectiveness increased as phage concentration decreased, showing its suitability for phage isolation. When this method was applied to isolate new Campylobacter phages from retail chicken skin, a total of 280 phages were recovered achieving an isolation success rate of 257%. From the 109 samples 68 resulted phage positive (62%). Chicken skin could be, therefore, considered a rich source in Campylobacter phages. This method is a simple, reproducible and efficient approach for the successful isolation of both group II and III Campylobacter specific bacteriophages, which could be helpful for the enhancement of food safety by reducing this pathogen contamination in broiler meat.

Knowledge and remaining gaps on the role of animal and human movements in the poultry production and trade networks in the global spread of avian influenza viruses - A scoping review.

Poultry production has significantly increased worldwide, along with the number of avian influenza (AI) outbreaks and the potential threat for human pandemic emergence. The role of wild bird movements in this global spread has been extensively studied while the role of animal, human and fomite movement within commercial poultry production and trade networks remains poorly understood. The aim of this work is to better understand these roles in relation to the different routes of AI spread. A scoping literature review was conducted according to the PRISMA guidelines (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) using a search algorithm combining twelve domains linked to AI spread and animal/human movements within poultry production and trade networks. Only 28 out of 3,978 articles retrieved dealt especially with the role of animal, human and fomite movements in AI spread within the international trade network (4 articles), the national trade network (8 articles) and the production network (16 articles). While the role of animal movements in AI spread within national trade networks has been largely identified, human and fomite movements have been considered more at risk for AI spread within national production networks. However, the role of these movements has never been demonstrated with field data, and production networks have only been partially studied and never at international level. The complexity of poultry production networks and the limited access to production and trade data are important barriers to this knowledge. There is a need to study the role of animal and human movements within poultry production and trade networks in the global spread of AI in partnership with both public and private actors to fill this gap.

Characterization of H7N9 avian influenza viruses isolated from duck meat products.

Avian influenza H7N9 viruses have caused five epidemic waves of human infections since the first human cases were reported in 2013. In 2016, the initial low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) H7N9 viruses became highly pathogenic, acquiring multi-basic amino acids at the haemagglutinin cleavage site. These highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H7N9 viruses have been detected in poultry and humans in China, causing concerns of a serious threat to global public health. In Japan, both HPAI and LPAI H7N9 viruses were isolated from duck meat products carried illegally and relinquished voluntarily at the border by passengers on flights from China to Japan between 2016 and 2017. Some of the LPAI and HPAI H7N9 viruses detected at the border in Japan were characterized previously in chickens and ducks; however, their pathogenicity and replicative ability in mammals remain unknown. In this study, we assessed the biological features of two HPAI H7N9 virus isolates [A/duck/Japan/AQ-HE29-22/2017 (HE29-22) and A/duck/Japan/AQ-HE29-52/2017 (HE29-52); both of these viruses were isolated from duck meat at the border)] and an LPAI H7N9 virus isolate [A/duck/Japan/AQ-HE28-3/2016 (HE28-3)] in mice and ferrets. In mice, HE29-52 was more pathogenic than HE29-22 and HE28-3. In ferrets, the two HPAI virus isolates replicated more efficiently in the lower respiratory tract of the animals than did the LPAI virus isolate. Our results indicate that HPAI H7N9 viruses with the potential to cause severe diseases in mammals have been illegally introduced to Japan.

Avian Influenza-Factors Affecting Consumers' Purchase Intentions toward Poultry Products.

Recently, continuing outbreaks of avian influenza in China have not only caused great loss to the agricultural sector but also brought fear and distrust to consumers, seriously undermining consumer confidence in chicken products. We investigated consumers' purchase intentions during avian influenza outbreaks by examining a regionally representative sample of 330 consumers in Guangzhou. With respect to 7 kinds of attributes, the ordered logit analysis indicated that possible health threat and uncertainty of the origin of poultry products may cause concern among consumers and cause them to avoid purchasing chicken products. Media reports have a great influence on consumers' intentions to purchase chicken products during avian influenza outbreaks. Overall, this study suggests establishing an effective mechanism of public knowledge (of chicken products' safety and quality) enhancement, in order to curb misleading media reports during avian influenza outbreaks.

Isolation and characterization of avian influenza viruses from raw poultry products illegally imported to Japan by international flight passengers.

The transportation of poultry and related products for international trade contributes to transboundary pathogen spread and disease outbreaks worldwide. To prevent pathogen incursion through poultry products, many countries have regulations about animal health and poultry product quarantine. However, in Japan, animal products have been illegally introduced into the country in baggage and confiscated at the airport. Lately, the number of illegally imported poultry and the incursion risk of transboundary pathogens through poultry products have been increasing. In this study, we isolated avian influenza viruses (AIVs) from raw poultry products illegally imported to Japan by international passengers. Highly (H5N1 and H5N6) and low (H9N2 and H1N2) pathogenic AIVs were isolated from raw chicken and duck products carried by flight passengers. H5 and H9 isolates were phylogenetically closely related to viruses isolated from poultry in China, and haemagglutinin genes of H5N1 and H5N6 isolates belonged to clades 2.3.2.1c and 2.3.4.4, respectively. Experimental infections of H5 and H9 isolates in chickens and ducks demonstrated pathogenicity and tissue tropism to skeletal muscles. To prevent virus incursion by poultry products, it is important to encourage the phased cleaning based on the disease control and eradication and promote the reduction in contamination risk in animal products.

A Qualitative Stakeholder Analysis of Avian Influenza Policy in Bangladesh.

Avian influenza is a major animal and public health concern in Bangladesh. A decade after development and implementation of the first national avian influenza and human pandemic influenza preparedness and response plan in Bangladesh, a two-stage qualitative stakeholder analysis was performed in relation to the policy development process and the actual policy. This study specifically aimed to identify the future policy options to prevent and control avian influenza and other poultry-related zoonotic diseases in Bangladesh. It was recommended that the policy should be based on the One Health concept, be evidence-based, sustainable, reviewed and updated as necessary. The future policy environment that is suitable for developing and implementing these policies should take into account the following points: the need to formally engage multiple sectors, the need for clear and acceptable leadership, roles and responsibilities and the need for a common pool of resources and provision for transferring resources. Most of these recommendations are directed towards the Government of Bangladesh. However, other sectors, including research and poultry production stakeholders, also have a major role to play to inform policy making and actively participate in the multi-sectoral approach.

Safe application of regionalization for trade in poultry and poultry products during highly pathogenic avian influenza outbreaks in the USA.

The 2014-2015 H5Nx high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) outbreak affected 211 commercial premises, 21 backyard flocks, 75 individual wild birds and four captive-reared raptors in 21 Western and upper Midwestern states, resulting in death or culling of over 50.4 million poultry in the stamping-out programme that cost the US government $850 million. The outbreak had a negative $3.3 billion impact on the economy. Seventeen trading partners suspended imports of all US-origin poultry and poultry products while 38 trading partners regionalized the United States, and allowed trade in poultry and poultry products to continue from areas of the US not affected by HPAI. Disease response and control activities in addition to the use of comprehensive surveillance and regionalization (zoning) as prescribed by the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code are a scientifically valid and effective means to maintain safe trade in poultry and poultry products. This was further realized during the 2016 H7N8 HPAI outbreak in Dubois County, Indiana, with greater acceptance of regionalization and continuity in trade with a more limited cost of $30 million for eradication.

Poultry food products--a source of avian influenza virus transmission to humans?

Global human mobility and intercontinental connectivity, expansion of livestock production and encroachment of wildlife habitats by invasive agricultural land use contribute to shape the complexity of influenza epidemiology. The OneHealth approach integrates these and further elements into considerations to improve disease control and prevention. Food of animal origin for human consumption is another integral aspect; if produced from infected livestock such items may act as vehicles of spread of animal pathogens, and, in case of zoonotic agents, as a potential human health hazard. Notifiable zoonotic avian influenza viruses (AIV) have become entrenched in poultry populations in several Asian and northern African countries since 2003. Highly pathogenic (HP) AIV (e.g. H5N1) cause extensive poultry mortality and severe economic losses. HPAIV and low pathogenic AIV (e.g. H7N9) with zoonotic propensities pose risks for human health. More than 1500 human cases of AIV infection have been reported, mainly from regions with endemically infected poultry. Intense human exposure to AIV-infected poultry, e.g. during rearing, slaughtering or processing of poultry, is a major risk factor for acquiring AIV infection. In contrast, human infections through consumption of AIV-contaminated food have not been substantiated. Heating poultry products according to kitchen standards (core temperatures ≥70°C, ≥10 s) rapidly inactivates AIV infectivity and renders fully cooked products safe. Nevertheless, concerted efforts must ensure that poultry products potentially contaminated with zoonotic AIV do not reach the food chain. Stringent and sustained OneHealth measures are required to better control and eventually eradicate, HPAIV from endemic regions.

[Development and Application of the Reverse Genetic Technologies for Infectious Bursal Disease Virus].

Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) is an important member of the Birnaviridae family. IBUV mainly targets the bursa of Fabricius, the central immune organ of chicken, resulting in chicken infectious bursal disease (IBD). IBD represents one of the great challenges for ongoing development of the poultry industry. Reverse genetics for IBDV emerged over twenty years ago. Since then, the technologies behind virus rescue have continually improved leading to a deep understanding of IBDV gene function and tailored vaccine development. Our lab has also been instrumental in the field of IBDV research. Here we review studies on the pathogenic mechanism and the effective prevention and control of IBD.

Avian influenza viruses in poultry products: a review.

The extensive circulation of the H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus, and the human health threat that it poses, has raised concerns over the food safety implications of this virus infecting poultry. In addition, among the most important risk factors for the possible emergence of avian influenza in the European Union and the United States, the European and Food Safety Agency and the US Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, respectively, have identified legal and illegal importations of infected poultry commodities. The present paper reviews existing knowledge on the presence of viable avian influenza viruses in poultry commodities.

Preliminary study for evaluation of avian influenza virus inactivation in contaminated poultry products using electron beam irradiation.

Spread of avian influenza is associated with movement of infected poultry and poultry products, and, as a result, strict international trade restrictions are in place. In addition, the possibility of transmission of avian influenza virus (AIV) strains to mammalian species by the consumption or handling of infected poultry, although a rare occurrence, is an important trade concern. Traditional methods for poultry product decontamination, such as thermal processing, are effective in inactivating AIV. However, alternative technologies such as electron beam (E-beam) irradiation offer some advantages in maintaining organoleptic properties of fresh poultry products. This study was designed to evaluate the applicability of high-energy (10 MeV) E-beam irradiation to inactivate AIV and reduce virus loads in egg products and poultry meat. Commercially available egg-white and ground turkey meat samples were spiked with the low-pathogenic A/chicken/TX/2002 H5N3 AIV and exposed to varying doses of high-energy E-beam irradiation in increments ranging from 0 kGy to 8 kGy. The viral titres in irradiated samples showed a linear dose-dependent reduction. The dose required to achieve 90% reduction (i.e. the D (10) value) of viable AIV loads was 2.3 kGy in phosphate buffer, 1.6 kGy in egg-white and 2.6 kGy in ground turkey meat samples. The effectiveness of E-beam irradiation to inactivate AIV was similar to the previously reported effectiveness of the E-beam against poliovirus and rotavirus. These results illustrate the potential applicability of high-energy (10 MeV) E-beam irradiation as a poultry product decontamination technology to inactivate AIV.

Influenza virus (H5N1) in live bird markets and food markets, Thailand.

A surveillance program for influenza A viruses (H5N1) was conducted in live bird and food markets in central Thailand during July 2006-August 2007. Twelve subtype H5N1 viruses were isolated. The subtype H5N1 viruses circulating in the markets were genetically related to those that circulated in Thailand during 2004-2005.

The animal-human interface and infectious disease in industrial food animal production: rethinking biosecurity and biocontainment.

Understanding interactions between animals and humans is critical in preventing outbreaks of zoonotic disease. This is particularly important for avian influenza. Food animal production has been transformed since the 1918 influenza pandemic. Poultry and swine production have changed from small-scale methods to industrial-scale operations. There is substantial evidence of pathogen movement between and among these industrial facilities, release to the external environment, and exposure to farm workers, which challenges the assumption that modern poultry production is more biosecure and biocontained as compared with backyard or small holder operations in preventing introduction and release of pathogens. An analysis of data from the Thai government investigation in 2004 indicates that the odds of H5N1 outbreaks and infections were significantly higher in large-scale commercial poultry operations as compared with backyard flocks. These data suggest that successful strategies to prevent or mitigate the emergence of pandemic avian influenza must consider risk factors specific to modern industrialized food animal production.

The challenge of avian influenza to the veterinary community.

Avian influenza (AI) is a listed disease of the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) that has become a disease of great importance both for animal and human health. The increased relevance of AI in the fields of animal and human health has highlighted the lack of scientific information on several aspects of the disease, which has hampered the adequate management of some of the recent crises. Millions of animals have died, and there is growing concern over the loss of human lives and over the management of the pandemic potential. The present paper aims to identify areas of knowledge of veterinary competence that need to be improved in order to generate information to support the global AI crisis, and highlights the major changes in AI legislation, including regulations related to trade. It also reviews the human health implications of AI, including the mechanisms by which a human pandemic virus may be generated, and the food safety issues related to this infection. The application of control policies, ranging from stamping out to emergency and prophylactic vaccination, are discussed on the basis of data generated in recent outbreaks, and in the light of new regulations, also in view of the maintenance of good animal welfare. Poultry veterinarians working for the industry or for the public sector represent the first line of defence against the pandemic threat and for the prevention and control of this infection in poultry and in wild birds. However, given the current situation, it is imperative that close collaboration is sought and achieved by health officials involved in the veterinary, agricultural and medical aspects of the disease. Only through the exchange of data, experiences, views and information will it be possible to combat this zoonosis, which represents a major threat to public health and animal well-being.

Efficacy comparisons of disinfectants used by the commercial poultry industry.

Several commercially available disinfectants used by the poultry industry were evaluated for their effectiveness against selected bacteria and viruses. When tested in the absence of organic matter, most disinfectant products were effective at the manufacturer's recommended level within 10 min of contact time. However, when organic matter was present, longer contact times and/or higher disinfectant dosages were needed to maintain effectiveness. Pseudomona aeruginosa and infectious laryngotracheitis virus were very resistant organisms in the presence of organic matter. Evaluation of disinfectant efficacy against several microbials in the absence or presence of organic matter was highly practical, flexible, and reproducible.

[Risk for the transmission of Newcastle disease by contaminated poultry products]. / Risques de transmission de la maladie de Newcastle par des produits avicoles contaminés.

Poultry products contaminated with pathogenic strains of Newcastle disease virus are a source of virus transmission to susceptible poultry flocks. The probability of contamination varies according to the type of product. Research conducted by various laboratories in Europe has shown that pathogenic virus can be isolated from the carcasses of chickens, whether vaccinated or not, during a brief period after experimental infection. Eggs laid by hens infected with Newcastle disease virus present a very low risk. Furthermore, feathers, bones, blood and offal present potential risks if they are incorporated in poultry feed. Finally, poultry droppings used as a fertiliser can present a major risk of infection in certain circumstances.