Perturbations in risk/reward decision making and frontal cortical catecholamine regulation induced by mild traumatic brain injury.

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) disrupts cognitive processes that influence risk taking behavior. Little is known regarding the effects of repetitive mild injury (rmTBI) or whether these outcomes are sex specific. Risk/reward decision making is mediated by the prefrontal cortex (PFC), which is densely innervated by catecholaminergic fibers. Aberrant PFC catecholamine activity has been documented following TBI and may underlie TBI-induced risky behavior. The present study characterized the effects of rmTBI on risk/reward decision making behavior and catecholamine transmitter regulatory proteins within the PFC. Rats were exposed to sham, single (smTBI), or three closed-head controlled cortical impact (CH-CCI) injuries and assessed for injury-induced effects on risk/reward decision making using a probabilistic discounting task (PDT). In the first week post-final surgery, mTBI increased risky choice preference. By the fourth week, males exhibited increased latencies to make risky choices following rmTBI, demonstrating a delayed effect on processing speed. When levels of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and the norepinephrine reuptake transporter (NET) were measured within subregions of the PFC, females exhibited dramatic increases of TH levels within the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) following smTBI. However, both males and females demonstrated reduced levels of OFC NET following rmTBI. These results indicate the OFC is susceptible to catecholamine instability after rmTBI and suggests that not all areas of the PFC contribute equally to TBI-induced imbalances. Overall, the CH-CCI model of rmTBI has revealed time-dependent and sex-specific changes in risk/reward decision making and catecholamine regulation following repetitive mild head injuries.

Feasibility Study of Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography with Iodine-123 Labeled Metaiodobenzylguanidine for Preclinical Evaluation of Labetalol as a ß-Adrenergic Receptor Blocker.

Among clinically used radiopharmaceuticals, iodine-123 labeled metaiodobenzylguanidine ([123I]mIBG) serves for diagnosing neuroendocrine tumors and obtaining images of myocardial sympathetic innervation. mIBG, a structural analogue of norepinephrine (NE), a neurotransmitter acting in peripheral and central nerves, follows a pathway similar to NE, transmitting signals through the NE transporter (NET) located at synaptic terminals. It moves through the body without decomposing, enabling noninvasive image evaluation. In this study, we aimed to quantify [123I]mIBG uptake in the adrenal glands using small animal single-photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT/CT) images post [123I]mIBG administration. We investigated the possibility of assessing the effectiveness of ß-adrenergic receptor blockers by quantifying SPECT/CT images and biodistribution results to determine the degree of [123I]mIBG uptake in the adrenal glands treated with labetalol, a known ß-adrenergic receptor blocker. Upon intravenous administration of [123I]mIBG to mice, SPECT/CT images were acquired over time to confirm the in vivo distribution pattern, revealing a clear uptake in the adrenal glands. Labetalol inhibited the uptake of [123I]mIBG in cell lines expressing NET. A decrease in [123I]mIBG uptake in the adrenal glands was observed in the labetalol-treated group compared with the normal group through SPECT/CT imaging and biodistribution studies. These results demonstrate that SPECT/CT imaging with [123I]mIBG could be applicable for evaluating the preclinical efficacy of new antihypertensive drug candidates such as labetalol, a ß-adrenergic receptor blocker.

Uncovering Structure-Activity Relationships of Phenethylamines: Paving the Way for Innovative Mental Health Treatments.

The rapidly evolving psychedelic industry has garnered considerable attention due to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-assisted psychotherapy's ground-breaking success in treating moderate-to-severe Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in two Phase 3 clinical trials. This has opened Pandora's box for the development of innovative therapeutic modalities. Of particular interest are the phenethylamines and their ability to inhibit monoamine transporters. In this study, we employed the quantitative structure-activity relationship methodology to develop three vigorous models for the reuptake of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine through monoamine transporters. These models were thoroughly validated using various criteria, including fitting (R2DAT = 0.869, R2SERT = 0.828, and R2NET = 0.887), internal (Q2looDAT = 0.795, Q2looSERT = 0.784, and Q2looNET = 0.820), and external (RMSEextDAT = 0.373, R2extDAT = 0.831, RMSEextSERT = 0.200, R2extSERT = 0.955, RMSEextNET = 0.318, and R2extNET = 0.711) criteria.

Transporters involved in adult rat cortical astrocyte dopamine uptake: Kinetics, expression and pharmacological modulation.

Astrocytes, glial cells in the central nervous system, perform a multitude of homeostatic functions and are in constant bidirectional communication with neuronal cells, a concept named the tripartite synapse; however, their role in the dopamine homeostasis remains unexplored. The aim of this study was to clarify the pharmacological and molecular characteristics of dopamine transport in cultured cortical astrocytes of adult rats. In addition, we were interested in the expression of mRNA of dopamine transporters as well as dopamine receptors D1 and D2 and in the effect of dopaminergic drugs on the expression of these transporters and receptors. We have found that astrocytes possess both Na+-dependent and Na+-independent transporters. Uptake of radiolabelled dopamine was time-, temperature- and concentration-dependent and was inhibited by decynium-22, a plasma membrane monoamine transporter inhibitor, tricyclic antidepressants desipramine and nortriptyline, both inhibitors of the norepinephrine transporter. Results of transporter mRNA expression indicate that the main transporters involved in cortical astrocyte dopamine uptake are the norepinephrine transporter and plasma membrane monoamine transporter. Both dopamine receptor subtypes were identified in cortical astrocyte cultures. Twenty-four-hour treatment of astrocyte cultures with apomorphine, a D1/D2 agonist, induced upregulation of D1 receptor, norepinephrine transporter and plasma membrane monoamine transporter, whereas the latter was downregulated by haloperidol and L-DOPA. Astrocytes take up dopamine by multiple transporters and express dopamine receptors, which are sensitive to dopaminergic drugs. The findings of this study could open a promising area of research for the fine-tuning of existing therapeutic strategies.

Norepinephrine transporter and vesicular monoamine transporter 2 tumor expression as a predictor of response to 131 I-MIBG in patients with relapsed/refractory neuroblastoma.

BACKGROUND: Prior studies suggest that norepinephrine transporter (NET) and vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) mediate meta-iodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) uptake and retention in neuroblastoma tumors. We evaluated the relationship between NET and VMAT2 tumor expression and clinical response to 131 I-MIBG therapy in patients with neuroblastoma. METHODS: Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was used to evaluate NET and VMAT2 protein expression levels on archival tumor samples (obtained at diagnosis or relapse) from patients with relapsed or refractory neuroblastoma treated with 131 I-MIBG. A composite protein expression H-score was determined by multiplying a semi-quantitative intensity value (0-3+) by the percentage of tumor cells expressing the protein. RESULTS: Tumor samples and clinical data were available for 106 patients, of whom 28.3% had partial response (PR) or higher. NET H-score was not significantly associated with response (≥PR), though the percentage of tumor cells expressing NET was lower among responders (median 80% for ≥PR vs. 90% for

Synthesis and preliminary evaluation of benzylaminoimidazoline derivatives as novel norepinephrine transporter ligands.

A series of benzylaminoimidazoline derivatives was synthesized and evaluated for norepinephrine transporter (NET) targeting. Among them, N-(3-iodobenzyl)-4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-2-amine (Compound 9) displayed the highest affinity for NET (IC50 = 5.65 ± 0.97 µM). The corresponding radiotracer [125 I]9 was further prepared by copper-mediated radioiodination and evaluated both in vitro and in vivo. The cellular uptake results suggested that [125 I]9 was specifically taken up by the NET-expressing SK-N-SH cell line. Biodistribution studies showed that [125 I]9 accumulated in the heart (5.54 ± 1.24 %ID/g at 5 min p.i. and 0.79 ± 0.08 %ID/g at 2 h p.i.) and adrenal gland (14.83 ± 3.47 %ID/g at 5 min p.i. and 3.87 ± 0.24 %ID/g at 2 h p.i.). The uptake in the heart and adrenal gland could be significantly inhibited by preinjection of desipramine (DMI). These results indicated that the benzylaminoimidazoline derivatives retained affinity for NET, which could provide structure-activity relationship data for further studies.

Relationships of in vivo brain norepinephrine transporter and age, BMI, and gender.

Previous research reported an age-related decline in brain norepinephrine transporter (NET) using (S, S)-[11C]O-methylreboxetine ([11C]MRB) as a radiotracer. Studies with the same tracer have been mixed in regard to differences related to body mass index (BMI). Here, we investigated potential age-, BMI-, and gender-related differences in brain NET availability using [11C]MRB, the most selective available radiotracer. Forty-three healthy participants (20 females, 23 males; age range 18-49 years), including 12 individuals with normal/lean weight, 15 with overweight, and 16 with obesity were scanned with [11C]MRB using a positron emission tomography (PET) high-resolution research tomograph (HRRT). We evaluated binding potential (BPND ) in brain regions with high NET availability using multilinear reference tissue model 2 (MRTM2) with the occipital cortex as a reference region. Brain regions were delineated with a defined anatomic template applied to subjects' structural MR scans. We found a negative association between age and NET availability in the locus coeruleus, raphe nucleus, and hypothalamus, with a 17%, 19%, and 14% decrease per decade, respectively, in each region. No gender or BMI relationships with NET availability were observed. Our findings suggest an age-related decline, but no BMI- or gender-related differences, in NET availability in healthy adults.

Norepinephrine transporter defects lead to sympathetic hyperactivity in Familial Dysautonomia models.

Familial dysautonomia (FD), a rare neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorder affects the sympathetic and sensory nervous system. Although almost all patients harbor a mutation in ELP1, it remains unresolved exactly how function of sympathetic neurons (symNs) is affected; knowledge critical for understanding debilitating disease hallmarks, including cardiovascular instability or dysautonomic crises, that result from dysregulated sympathetic activity. Here, we employ the human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC) system to understand symN disease mechanisms and test candidate drugs. FD symNs are intrinsically hyperactive in vitro, in cardiomyocyte co-cultures, and in animal models. We report reduced norepinephrine transporter expression, decreased intracellular norepinephrine (NE), decreased NE re-uptake, and excessive extracellular NE in FD symNs. SymN hyperactivity is not a direct ELP1 mutation result, but may connect to NET via RAB proteins. We found that candidate drugs lowered hyperactivity independent of ELP1 modulation. Our findings may have implications for other symN disorders and may allow future drug testing and discovery.

Effects of Atomoxetine on Motor and Cognitive Behaviors and Brain Electrophysiological Activity of Dopamine Transporter Knockout Rats.

Changes in dopaminergic and noradrenergic transmission are considered to be the underlying cause of attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Atomoxetine (ATX) is a selective norepinephrine transporter (NET) inhibitor that is currently used for ADHD treatment. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effect of atomoxetine on the behavior and brain activity of dopamine transporter knockout (DAT-KO) rats, which are characterized by an ADHD-like behavioral phenotype. Prepulse inhibition (PPI) was assessed in DAT-KO and wild type rats after saline and ATX injections, as well as behavioral parameters in the Hebb-Williams maze and power spectra and coherence of electrophysiological activity. DAT-KO rats demonstrated a pronounced behavioral and electrophysiological phenotype, characterized by hyperactivity, increased number of errors in the maze, repetitive behaviors and disrupted PPI, changes in cortical and striatal power spectra and interareal coherence. Atomoxetine significantly improved PPI and decreased repetitive behaviors in DAT-KO rats and influenced behavior of wild-type rats. ATX also led to significant changes in power spectra and coherence of DAT-KO and wild type rats. Assessment of noradrenergic modulation effects in DAT-KO provides insight into the intricate interplay of monoaminergic systems, although further research is still required to fully understand the complexity of this interaction.

Mutations of tyrosine 467 in the human norepinephrine transporter attenuate HIV-1 Tat-induced inhibition of dopamine transport while retaining physiological function.

Dysregulation of dopaminergic transmission induced by the HIV-1 transactivator of transcription (Tat) has been implicated as a central factor in the development of HIV-1 associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). We have demonstrated that the tyrosine470 residue of the human dopamine transporter (hDAT) plays a critical role in Tat-hDAT interaction. Based on the computational modeling predictions, the present study sought to examine the mutational effects of the tyrosine467 residue of the human norepinephrine transporter (hNET), a corresponding residue of the hDAT tyrosine470, on Tat-induced inhibition of reuptake of dopamine through the hNET. Mutations of the hNET tyrosine467 to a histidine (Y467H) or a phenylalanine (Y467F) displayed similar kinetic properties of reuptake of [3H]dopamine and [3H]norepinephrine in PC12 cells expressing wild-type hNET and its mutants. Compared to wild-type hNET, neither of Y467H or Y467F altered Bmax and Kd values of [3H]WIN35,428 binding, whereas Y467H but not Y467F decreased the Bmax of [3H]nisoxetine binding without changes in Kd. Y467H also increased the affinity of nisoxetine for inhibiting [3H]dopamine uptake relative to wild-type hNET. Recombinant Tat1-86 (140 nM) induced a significant reduction of [3H]dopamine uptake in wild-type hNET, which was attenuated in both Y467H and Y467F. Compared to wild-type hNET, neither Y467H or Y467F altered [3H]dopamine efflux in CHO cells expressing WT hNET and mutants, whereas Y467F but not Y467H decreased [3H]MPP+ efflux. These results demonstrate tyrosine467 as a functional recognition residue in the hNET for Tat-induced inhibition of dopamine transport and provide a novel insight into the molecular basis for developing selective compounds that target Tat-NET interactions in the context of HAND.

The impact of noradrenergic neurotoxin DSP-4 and noradrenaline transporter knockout (NET-KO) on the activity of liver cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A) in male and female mice.

BACKGROUND: Our earlier studies have shown that the brain noradrenergic system regulates cytochrome P450 (CYP) in rat liver via neuroendocrine mechanism. In the present work, a comparative study on the effect of intraperitoneal administration of the noradrenergic neurotoxin DSP-4 and the knockout of noradrenaline transporter (NET-KO) on the CYP3A in the liver of male and female mice was performed. METHODS: The experiments were conducted on C57BL/6J WT and NET-/- male/female mice. DSP-4 was injected intraperitoneally as a single dose (50 mg/kg ip.) to WT mice. The activity of CYP3A was measured as the rate of 6ß-hydroxylation of testosterone in liver microsomes. The CYP3A protein level was estimated by Western blotting. RESULTS: DSP-4 evoked a selective decrease in the noradrenaline level in the brain of male and female mice. At the same time, DSP-4 reduced the CYP3A activity in males, but not in females. The level of CYP3A protein was not changed. The NET knockout did not affect the CYP3A activity/protein in both sexes. CONCLUSIONS: The results with DSP-4 treated mice showed sex-dependent differences in the regulation of liver CYP3A by the brain noradrenergic system (with only males being responsive), and revealed that the NET knockout did not affect CYP3A in both sexes. Further studies into the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal hormones in DSP-4 treated mice may explain sex-specific differences in CYP3A regulation, whereas investigation of monoaminergic receptor sensitivity in the hypothalamic/pituitary areas of NET-/- mice will allow for understanding a lack of changes in the CYP3A activity in the NET-KO animals.

In vitro and in vivo pharmacological characterization of dasotraline, a dual dopamine and norepinephrine transporter inhibitor in vivo.

Inhibitors of dopamine transporters (DAT), norepinephrine transporters (NET) and serotonin transporters (SERT) are effective treatments for neuropsychiatric diseases. Dasotraline [(1R,4 S)- 4-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)- 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1-naphthalenamine, also known as SEP-225289) was evaluated for its inhibitory potency at DAT, NET and SERT using in vitro and in vivo assays. In vitro radiometric functional uptake studies showed preferential inhibition by dasotraline of hDAT (IC50 =3 nM) and hNET (IC50 =4 nM relative to hSERT(IC50 =15 nM). In mouse ex vivo occupancy studies, dasotraline demonstrated total plasma concentration-dependent occupancy at DAT, NET and SERT. Determination of the TO50 (50% transporter occupancy) were 32, 109 and 276 ng/ml, respectively. In SPECT imaging studies in baboons, dasotraline (0.2 mg/kg iv) displaced radiotracer binding to DAT by 87% but only 20% at NET and SERT. Rat microdialysis studies were performed in prefrontal cortex and striatum. Dasotraline produced sustained (>4 h) increases in dopamine and norepinephrine concentrations. Dasotraline was also more potent at increasing synaptic dopamine in the striatum, and norepinephrine in the prefrontal cortex than serotonin in these regions. In summary, dasotraline preferentially inhibits DAT and NET relative to SERT. Together, the occupancy and neurochemical profile of dasotraline provide a mechanistic basis for the treatment of diseases that have an underlying causality involving dopamine and norepinephrine dysfunction.

Organic cation transporter 3 mediates the non-norepinephrine transporter driven uptake of meta-[211At]astato-benzylguanidine.

INTRODUCTION: Meta-[211At]astato-benzylguanidine ([211At]MABG) accumulates in pheochromocytoma via norepinephrine transporter (NET) and leads to a strong antitumor effect, but it also distributed in normal tissues non-specifically. Meta-[131I]iodo-benzylguanidine ([131I]MIBG), an iodine-labeled analog of [211At]MABG, is known to be transported by not only NET but also organic cation transporter (OCT). The involvement of OCT in [211At]MABG uptake is still largely unknown. We investigated the involvement of OCT in the non-NET-driven uptake of [211At]MABG both in vitro and in vivo. METHODS: [123I]MIBG and [211At]MABG uptake was investigated in PC-12 (rat pheochromocytoma cell line), NIH/3T3 (mouse fibroblasts cell line), ACHN (human renal cancer cell line), and BxPC-3 (human pancreatic cancer cell line). Herein, we used desipramine and dl-norepinephrine to inhibit NET, and we used steroids (hydrocortisone and prednisolone) to inhibit OCT3. The [211At]MABG uptake in OCT3-knockdown cells established with OCT3-selective siRNA was also investigated. We investigated the biodistribution of [211At]MABG in PC-12 tumor-bearing mice after a preloading of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) or hydrocortisone solution. RESULTS: The uptake of both [123I]MIBG and [211At]MABG was significantly inhibited by desipramine in PC-12 cells but not the other cell lines. The expression of OCT3 was relatively higher than those of the other OCT subtypes in ACHN and BxPC-3 cells. The expression of OCTs was not observed in NIH/3T3 cells. The uptake of both [123I]MIBG and [211At]MABG in ACHN and BxPC-3 cells was significantly inhibited by the steroid treatments. The [211At]MABG uptake was also reduced in OCT3-knockdown cells (p < 0.001). The radioactivity of [211At]MABG was significantly reduced in normal tissues by the preloading of hydrocortisone. In contrast, there was an increasing trend of [211At]MABG uptake in the PC-12 tumors. The tumor-to-normal tissue ratio was significantly increased by the preloading of hydrocortisone compared to that of PBS. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that OCT3 is involved in non-NET-driven [211At]MABG uptake. The preloading of hydrocortisone selectively reduced [211At]MABG accumulation in normal organs in vivo. OCT3 inhibition may therefore be beneficial for a reduction of the radiation risk in healthy organs in the treatment of malignant pheochromocytomas.

Blunted Amphetamine-induced Reinforcing Behaviors and Transporter Downregulation in Knock-in Mice Carrying Alanine Mutations at Threonine-258 and Serine-259 of Norepinephrine Transporter.

Altered amine transporter function, phosphorylation, and association with interacting proteins are evident in animals with a history of psychostimulant exposure. Our previous studies have shown that the Thr258/Ser259 motif in the norepinephrine transporter (NET) is involved in amphetamine (AMPH)-mediated NET regulation and behavior. However, the neurobiological consequences of in vivo Thr258/Ser259-dependent NET regulation in an intact animal model are unclear. Therefore, we generated a viable construct-valid NET-Thr258Ala/Ser259Ala (NET-T258A/S259A) mouse model using CRISPR/Cas9 technology by replacing Thr258/Ser259 motif with Ala258/Ala259 motif. NET-T258A/S259A mice have a birth rate consistent with Mendelian inheritance ratios. Both male and female homozygous NET-T258A/S259A mice are viable, display normal growth and general health, and exhibit normal body weight (sex-dependent) and total activity in the open field similar to their wild-type (WT) littermates. NET-T258A/S259A mice showed reduced NET function in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) compared to WT mice while NET function in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) remained unchanged. Compared to respective WT counterparts, NET-T258A/S259A males but not females showed significantly reduced locomotor activation in response to acute AMPH administration and significantly reduced AMPH-induced conditioned place preference (CPP). When tested in the males only, acute AMPH administration inhibited NET function and surface expression in the WT NAc but not in the NET-T258A/S259A NAc while AMPH administration inhibited DAT function and surface expression in the NAc of both WT and NET-T258A/S259A mice. Collectively, our findings reveal that the mice carrying the T258A/S259A mutation in NET gene display brain region-specific differences in NET functional expression and blunted response to AMPH.

Molecular Imaging-Derived Biomarker of Cardiac Nerve Integrity - Introducing High NET Affinity PET Probe 18F-AF78.

Background: Radiolabeled agents that are substrates for the norepinephrine transporter (NET) can be used to quantify cardiac sympathetic nervous conditions and have been demonstrated to identify high-risk congestive heart failure (HF) patients prone to arrhythmic events. We aimed to fully characterize the kinetic profile of the novel 18F-labeled NET probe AF78 for PET imaging of the cardiac sympathetic nervous system (SNS) among various species. Methods:18F-AF78 was compared to norepinephrine (NE) and established SNS radiotracers by employing in vitro cell assays, followed by an in vivo PET imaging approach with healthy rats, rabbits and nonhuman primates (NHPs). Additionally, chase protocols were performed in NHPs with NET inhibitor desipramine (DMI) and the NE releasing stimulator tyramine (TYR) to investigate retention kinetics in cardiac SNS. Results: Relative to other SNS radiotracers, 18F-AF78 showed higher transport affinity via NET in a cell-based competitive uptake assay (IC50 0.42 ± 0.14 µM), almost identical to that of NE (IC50, 0.50 ± 0.16 µM, n.s.). In rabbits and NHPs, initial cardiac uptake was significantly reduced by NET inhibition. Furthermore, cardiac tracer retention was not affected by a DMI chase protocol but was markedly reduced by intermittent TYR chase, thereby suggesting that 18F-AF78 is stored and can be released via the synaptic vesicular turnover process. Computational modeling hypothesized the formation of a T-shaped π-π stacking at the binding site, suggesting a rationale for the high affinity of 18F-AF78. Conclusion:18F-AF78 demonstrated high in vitro NET affinity and advantageous in vivo radiotracer kinetics across various species, indicating that 18F-AF78 is an SNS imaging agent with strong potential to guide specific interventions in cardiovascular medicine.

The Role of the Noradrenergic System in Eating Disorders: A Systematic Review.

Noradrenaline (NE) is a catecholamine acting as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone, with relevant effects in modulating feeding behavior and satiety. Several studies have assessed the relationship between the noradrenergic system and Eating Disorders (EDs). This systematic review aims to report the existing literature on the role of the noradrenergic system in the development and treatment of EDs. A total of 35 studies were included. Preclinical studies demonstrated an involvement of the noradrenergic pathways in binge-like behaviors. Genetic studies on polymorphisms in genes coding for NE transporters and regulating enzymes have shown conflicting evidence. Clinical studies have reported non-unanimous evidence for the existence of absolute alterations in plasma NE values in patients with Anorexia Nervosa (AN) and Bulimia Nervosa (BN). Pharmacological studies have documented the efficacy of noradrenaline-modulating therapies in the treatment of BN and Binge Eating Disorder (BED). Insufficient evidence was found concerning the noradrenergic-mediated genetics of BED and BN, and psychopharmacological treatments targeting the noradrenergic system in AN. According to these data, further studies are required to expand the existing knowledge on the noradrenergic system as a potential target for treatments of EDs.

Novel [18F]-Labeled Meta-Bromobenzylguanidine Derivatives: Potential Positron Emission Tomography Imaging Probes for the Norepinephrine Transporter.

To develop novel norepinephrine transporter (NET)-targeting positron emission tomography (PET) probes with optimal pharmacokinetic properties, a series of meta-bromobenzylguanidine derivatives was synthesized. 4-Fluorodiethoxyethane-3-bromobenzylguanidine (compound 12) showed relatively good affinity for the NET (IC50 = 1.00 ± 0.04 µM). The corresponding radiotracer 18F-12 was prepared in high radiochemical purity (>98%) via a three-step method. The in vitro cellular uptake results demonstrated that 18F-12 was specifically taken up by NET-expressing SK-N-SH cells by the uptake-1 mechanism. Biodistribution studies in mice showed that 18F-12 exhibited high cardiac uptake (10.45 ± 0.66 %ID/g at 5 min p.i. and 6.44 ± 0.40 %ID/g at 120 min p.i.), faster liver clearance, and a lower dose of absorbed radiation than [123I]-labeled meta-iodobenzylguanidine ([123I]MIBG). Small animal PET imaging confirmed the high heart-to-background ratio of 18F-12 and the uptake-1 mechanism specific for the NET in rats, indicating its potential as a promising PET radiotracer for cardiac sympathetic nerve imaging.

The Pharmacological Profile of Second Generation Pyrovalerone Cathinones and Related Cathinone Derivative.

Pyrovalerone cathinones are potent psychoactive substances that possess a pyrrolidine moiety. Pyrovalerone-type novel psychoactive substances (NPS) are continuously detected but their pharmacology and toxicology are largely unknown. We assessed several pyrovalerone and related cathinone derivatives at the human norepinephrine (NET), dopamine (DAT), and serotonin (SERT) uptake transporters using HEK293 cells overexpressing each respective transporter. We examined the transporter-mediated monoamine efflux in preloaded cells. The receptor binding and activation potency was also assessed at the 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A, 5-HT2B, and 5-HT2C receptors. All pyrovalerone cathinones were potent DAT (IC50 = 0.02-8.7 µM) and NET inhibitors (IC50 = 0.03-4.6 µM), and exhibited no SERT activity at concentrations < 10 µM. None of the compounds induced monoamine efflux. NEH was a potent DAT/NET inhibitor (IC50 = 0.17-0.18 µM). 4F-PBP and NEH exhibited a high selectivity for the DAT (DAT/SERT ratio = 264-356). Extension of the alkyl chain enhanced NET and DAT inhibition potency, while presence of a 3,4-methylenedioxy moiety increased SERT inhibition potency. Most compounds did not exhibit any relevant activity at other monoamine receptors. In conclusion, 4F-PBP and NEH were selective DAT/NET inhibitors indicating that these substances likely produce strong psychostimulant effects and have a high abuse liability.

The Role of the Second Extracellular Loop of Norepinephrine Transporter, Neurotrophin-3 and Tropomyosin Receptor Kinase C in T Cells: A Peripheral Biomarker in the Etiology of Schizophrenia.

The neurobiology of schizophrenia is multifactorial, comprising the dysregulation of several biochemical pathways and molecules. This research proposes a peripheral biomarker for schizophrenia that involves the second extracellular loop of norepinephrine transporter (NEText), the tropomyosin receptor kinase C (TrkC), and the neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) in T cells. The study of NEText, NT-3, and TrkC was performed in T cells and plasma extracted from peripheral blood of 54 patients with schizophrenia and 54 healthy controls. Levels of NT-3, TrkC, and NET were significantly lower in plasma and T cells of patients compared to healthy controls. Co-immunoprecipitation (co-IPs) showed protein interactions with Co-IP NEText-NT-3 and Co-IP NEText-TrkC. Computational modelling of protein-peptide docking by CABS-dock provided a medium-high accuracy model for NT-3-NEText (4.6935 Å) and TrkC-NEText (2.1365 Å). In summary, immunocomplexes reached statistical relevance in the T cells of the control group contrary to the results obtained with schizophrenia. The reduced expression of NT-3, TrkC, and NET, and the lack of molecular complexes in T cells of patients with schizophrenia may lead to a peripheral dysregulation of intracellular signaling pathways and an abnormal reuptake of norepinephrine (NE) by NET. This peripheral molecular biomarker underlying schizophrenia reinforces the role of neurotrophins, and noradrenergic and immune systems in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia.

Pitolisant, a wake-promoting agent devoid of psychostimulant properties: Preclinical comparison with amphetamine, modafinil, and solriamfetol.

Several therapeutic options are currently available to treat excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) in patients suffering from narcolepsy or obstructive sleep apnea. However, there are no comparisons between the various wake-promoting agents in terms of mechanism of action, efficacy, or safety. The goal of this study was to compare amphetamine, modafinil, solriamfetol, and pitolisant at their known primary pharmacological targets, histamine H3 receptors (H3R), dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin transporters, and in various in vivo preclinical models in relation to neurochemistry, locomotion, behavioral sensitization, and food intake. Results confirmed that the primary pharmacological effect of amphetamine, modafinil, and solriamfetol was to increase central dopamine neurotransmission, in part by inhibiting its transporter. Furthermore, solriamfetol increased levels of extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, and decreased the 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl acetic acid (DOPAC)/DA ratio in the striatum, as reported for modafinil and amphetamine. All these compounds produced hyperlocomotion, behavioral sensitization, and hypophagia, which are common features of psychostimulants and of compounds with abuse potential. In contrast, pitolisant, a selective and potent H3R antagonist/inverse agonist that promotes wakefulness, had no effect on striatal dopamine, locomotion, or food intake. In addition, pitolisant, devoid of behavioral sensitization by itself, attenuated the hyperlocomotion induced by either modafinil or solriamfetol. Therefore, pitolisant presents biochemical, neurochemical, and behavioral profiles different from those of amphetamine and other psychostimulants such as modafinil or solriamfetol. In conclusion, pitolisant is a differentiated therapeutic option, when compared with psychostimulants, for the treatment of EDS, as this agent does not show any amphetamine-like properties within in vivo preclinical models.