RNA-mediated ribonucleoprotein assembly controls TDP-43 nuclear retention.

TDP-43 is an essential RNA-binding protein strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders characterized by cytoplasmic aggregates and loss of nuclear TDP-43. The protein shuttles between nucleus and cytoplasm, yet maintaining predominantly nuclear TDP-43 localization is important for TDP-43 function and for inhibiting cytoplasmic aggregation. We previously demonstrated that specific RNA binding mediates TDP-43 self-assembly and biomolecular condensation, requiring multivalent interactions via N- and C-terminal domains. Here, we show that these complexes play a key role in TDP-43 nuclear retention. TDP-43 forms macromolecular complexes with a wide range of size distribution in cells and we find that defects in RNA binding or inter-domain interactions, including phase separation, impair the assembly of the largest species. Our findings suggest that recruitment into these macromolecular complexes prevents cytoplasmic egress of TDP-43 in a size-dependent manner. Our observations uncover fundamental mechanisms controlling TDP-43 cellular homeostasis, whereby regulation of RNA-mediated self-assembly modulates TDP-43 nucleocytoplasmic distribution. Moreover, these findings highlight pathways that may be implicated in TDP-43 proteinopathies and identify potential therapeutic targets.

Stimulating VAPB-PTPIP51 ER-mitochondria tethering corrects FTD/ALS mutant TDP43 linked Ca2+ and synaptic defects.

Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are clinically linked major neurodegenerative diseases. Notably, TAR DNA-binding protein-43 (TDP43) accumulations are hallmark pathologies of FTD/ALS and mutations in the gene encoding TDP43 cause familial FTD/ALS. There are no cures for FTD/ALS. FTD/ALS display damage to a broad range of physiological functions, many of which are regulated by signaling between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria. This signaling is mediated by the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethering proteins that serve to recruit regions of ER to the mitochondrial surface so as to facilitate inter-organelle communications. Several studies have now shown that disrupted ER-mitochondria signaling including breaking of the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers are features of FTD/ALS and that for TDP43 and other familial genetic FTD/ALS insults, this involves activation of glycogen kinase-3ß (GSK3ß). Such findings have prompted suggestions that correcting damage to ER-mitochondria signaling and the VAPB-PTPIP51 interaction may be broadly therapeutic. Here we provide evidence to support this notion. We show that overexpression of VAPB or PTPIP51 to enhance ER-mitochondria signaling corrects mutant TDP43 induced damage to inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) receptor delivery of Ca2+ to mitochondria which is a primary function of the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers, and to synaptic function. Moreover, we show that ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), an FDA approved drug linked to FTD/ALS and other neurodegenerative diseases therapy and whose precise therapeutic target is unclear, corrects TDP43 linked damage to the VAPB-PTPIP51 interaction. We also show that this effect involves inhibition of TDP43 mediated activation of GSK3ß. Thus, correcting damage to the VAPB-PTPIP51 tethers may have therapeutic value for FTD/ALS and other age-related neurodegenerative diseases.

A transient protein folding response targets aggregation in the early phase of TDP-43-mediated neurodegeneration.

Understanding the mechanisms that drive TDP-43 pathology is integral to combating amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) and other neurodegenerative diseases. Here we generated a longitudinal quantitative proteomic map of the cortex from the cytoplasmic TDP-43 rNLS8 mouse model of ALS and FTLD, and developed a complementary open-access webtool, TDP-map ( https://shiny.rcc.uq.edu.au/TDP-map/ ). We identified distinct protein subsets enriched for diverse biological pathways with temporal alterations in protein abundance, including increases in protein folding factors prior to disease onset. This included increased levels of DnaJ homolog subfamily B member 5, DNAJB5, which also co-localized with TDP-43 pathology in diseased human motor cortex. DNAJB5 over-expression decreased TDP-43 aggregation in cell and cortical neuron cultures, and knockout of Dnajb5 exacerbated motor impairments caused by AAV-mediated cytoplasmic TDP-43 expression in mice. Together, these findings reveal molecular mechanisms at distinct stages of ALS and FTLD progression and suggest that protein folding factors could be protective in neurodegenerative diseases.

Effective Inhibition of TDP-43 Aggregation by Native State Stabilization.

Preventing the misfolding or aggregation of transactive response DNA binding protein with 43 kDa (TDP-43) is the most actively pursued disease-modifying strategy to treat amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and other neurodegenerative diseases. In this work, we provide proof of concept that native state stabilization of TDP-43 is a viable and effective strategy for treating TDP-43 proteinopathies. Firstly, we leveraged the Cryo-EM structures of TDP-43 fibrils to design C-terminal substitutions that disrupt TDP-43 aggregation. Secondly, we showed that these substitutions (S333D/S342D) stabilize monomeric TDP-43 without altering its physiological properties. Thirdly, we demonstrated that binding native oligonucleotide ligands stabilized monomeric TDP-43 and prevented its fibrillization and phase separation in the absence of direct binding to the aggregation-prone C-terminal domain. Fourthly, we showed that the monomeric TDP-43 variant could be induced to aggregate in a controlled manner, which enabled the design and implementation of a high-throughput screening assay to identify native state stabilizers of TDP-43. Altogether, our findings demonstrate that different structural domains in TDP-43 could be exploited and targeted to develop drugs that stabilize the native state of TDP-43 and provide a platform to discover novel drugs to treat TDP-43 proteinopathies.

Integration of FUNDC1-associated mitochondrial protein import and mitochondrial quality control contributes to TDP-43 degradation.

Though TDP-43 protein can be translocated into mitochondria and causes mitochondrial damage in TDP-43 proteinopathy, little is known about how TDP-43 is imported into mitochondria. In addition, whether mitochondrial damage is caused by mitochondrial mislocalization of TDP-43 or a side effect of mitochondria-mediated TDP-43 degradation remains to be investigated. Here, our bioinformatical analyses reveal that mitophagy receptor gene FUNDC1 is co-expressed with TDP-43, and both TDP-43 and FUNDC1 expression is correlated with genes associated with mitochondrial protein import pathway in brain samples of patients diagnosed with TDP-43 proteinopathy. FUNDC1 promotes mitochondrial translocation of TDP-43 possibly by promoting TDP-43-TOM70 and DNAJA2-TOM70 interactions, which is independent of the LC3 interacting region of FUNDC1 in cellular experiments. In the transgenic fly model of TDP-43 proteinopathy, overexpressing FUNDC1 enhances TDP-43 induced mitochondrial damage, whereas down-regulating FUNDC1 reverses TDP-43 induced mitochondrial damage. FUNDC1 regulates mitochondria-mediated TDP-43 degradation not only by regulating mitochondrial TDP-43 import, but also by increasing LONP1 level and by activating mitophagy, which plays important roles in cytosolic TDP-43 clearance. Together, this study not only uncovers the mechanism of mitochondrial TDP-43 import, but also unravels the active role played by mitochondria in regulating TDP-43 homeostasis.

Mitigating a TDP-43 proteinopathy by targeting ataxin-2 using RNA-targeting CRISPR effector proteins.

The TDP-43 proteinopathies, which include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal dementia, are a devastating group of neurodegenerative disorders that are characterized by the mislocalization and aggregation of TDP-43. Here we demonstrate that RNA-targeting CRISPR effector proteins, a programmable class of gene silencing agents that includes the Cas13 family of enzymes and Cas7-11, can be used to mitigate TDP-43 pathology when programmed to target ataxin-2, a modifier of TDP-43-associated toxicity. In addition to inhibiting the aggregation and transit of TDP-43 to stress granules, we find that the in vivo delivery of an ataxin-2-targeting Cas13 system to a mouse model of TDP-43 proteinopathy improved functional deficits, extended survival, and reduced the severity of neuropathological hallmarks. Further, we benchmark RNA-targeting CRISPR platforms against ataxin-2 and find that high-fidelity forms of Cas13 possess improved transcriptome-wide specificity compared to Cas7-11 and a first-generation effector. Our results demonstrate the potential of CRISPR technology for TDP-43 proteinopathies.

RNA-binding deficient TDP-43 drives cognitive decline in a mouse model of TDP-43 proteinopathy.

TDP-43 proteinopathies including frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are neurodegenerative disorders characterized by aggregation and mislocalization of the nucleic acid-binding protein TDP-43 and subsequent neuronal dysfunction. Here, we developed endogenous models of sporadic TDP-43 proteinopathy based on the principle that disease-associated TDP-43 acetylation at lysine 145 (K145) alters TDP-43 conformation, impairs RNA-binding capacity, and induces downstream mis-regulation of target genes. Expression of acetylation-mimic TDP-43K145Q resulted in stress-induced nuclear TDP-43 foci and loss of TDP-43 function in primary mouse and human-induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived cortical neurons. Mice harboring the TDP-43K145Q mutation recapitulated key hallmarks of FTLD, including progressive TDP-43 phosphorylation and insolubility, TDP-43 mis-localization, transcriptomic and splicing alterations, and cognitive dysfunction. Our study supports a model in which TDP-43 acetylation drives neuronal dysfunction and cognitive decline through aberrant splicing and transcription of critical genes that regulate synaptic plasticity and stress response signaling. The neurodegenerative cascade initiated by TDP-43 acetylation recapitulates many aspects of human FTLD and provides a new paradigm to further interrogate TDP-43 proteinopathies.

TDP-43 pathology is associated with increased tau burdens and seeding.

BACKGROUND: Most Alzheimer's Disease (AD) cases also exhibit limbic predominant age-related TDP-43 encephalopathy neuropathological changes (LATE-NC), besides amyloid-ß plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) containing hyperphosphorylated tau (p-tau). LATE-NC is characterized by cytoplasmic aggregates positive for pathological TDP-43 and is associated with more severe clinical outcomes in AD, compared to AD cases lacking TDP-43 pathology TDP-43: AD(LATE-NC-). Accumulating evidence suggests that TDP-43 and p-tau interact and exhibit pathological synergy during AD pathogenesis. However, it is not yet fully understood how the presence of TDP-43 affects p-tau aggregation in symptomatic AD. METHODS: In this study, we investigated the impact of TDP-43 proteinopathy on p-tau pathology with different approaches: histologically, in a human post-mortem cohort (n = 98), as well as functionally using a tau biosensor cell line and TDP-43A315T transgenic mice. RESULTS: We found that AD cases with comorbid LATE-NC, AD(LATE-NC+), have increased burdens of pretangles and/or NFTs as well as increased brain levels of p-tau199, compared to AD(LATE-NC-) cases and controls. The burden of TDP-43 pathology was also correlated with the Braak NFT stages. A tau biosensor cell line treated with sarkosyl-insoluble, brain-derived homogenates from AD(LATE-NC+) cases displayed exacerbated p-tau seeding, compared to control and AD(LATE-NC-)-treated cells. Consistently, TDP-43A315T mice injected with AD(LATE-NC+)-derived extracts also exhibited a more severe hippocampal seeding, compared to the remaining experimental groups, albeit no TDP-43 aggregation was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings extend the current knowledge by supporting a functional synergy between TDP-43 and p-tau. We further demonstrate that TDP-43 pathology worsens p-tau aggregation in an indirect manner and increases its seeding potential, probably by increasing p-tau levels. This may ultimately contribute to tau-driven neurotoxicity and cell death. Because most AD cases present with comorbid LATE-NC, this study has an impact on the understanding of TDP-43 and tau pathogenesis in AD and LATE, which account for the majority of dementia cases worldwide. Moreover, it highlights the need for the development of a biomarker that detects TDP-43 during life, in order to properly stratify AD and LATE patients.

TDP-43 protein interactome informs about perturbed canonical pathways and may help develop personalized medicine approaches for patients with TDP-43 pathology.

Transactive response DNA binding protein of 43 kDa (TDP-43) pathology is a common proteinopathy observed among a broad spectrum of patients with neurodegenerative disease, regardless of the mutation. This suggests that protein-protein interactions of TDP-43 with other proteins may in part be responsible for the pathology. To gain better insights, we investigated TDP-43-binding proteins in each domain and correlated these interactions with canonical pathways. These investigations revealed key cellular events that are involved and are important at each domain and suggested previously identified compounds to modulate key aspects of these canonical pathways. Our approach proposes that personalized medicine approaches, which focus on perturbed cellular mechanisms would be feasible in the near future.

Different Chronic Stress Paradigms Converge on Endogenous TDP43 Cleavage and Aggregation.

The TAR-DNA binding protein (TDP43) is a nuclear protein whose cytoplasmic inclusions are hallmarks of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). Acute stress in cells causes TDP43 mobilization to the cytoplasm and its aggregation through different routes. Although acute stress elicits a strong phenotype, is far from recapitulating the years-long aggregation process. We applied different chronic stress protocols and described TDP43 aggregation in a human neuroblastoma cell line by combining solubility assays, thioflavin-based microscopy and flow cytometry. This approach allowed us to detect, for the first time to our knowledge in vitro, the formation of 25 kDa C-terminal fragment of TDP43, a pathogenic hallmark of ALS. Our results indicate that chronic stress, compared to the more common acute stress paradigm, better recapitulates the cell biology of TDP43 proteinopathies. Moreover, we optimized a protocol for the detection of bona fide prions in living cells, suggesting that TDP43 may form amyloids as a stress response.

The era of cryptic exons: implications for ALS-FTD.

TDP-43 is an RNA-binding protein with a crucial nuclear role in splicing, and mislocalises from the nucleus to the cytoplasm in a range of neurodegenerative disorders. TDP-43 proteinopathy spans a spectrum of incurable, heterogeneous, and increasingly prevalent neurodegenerative diseases, including the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal dementia disease spectrum and a significant fraction of Alzheimer's disease. There are currently no directed disease-modifying therapies for TDP-43 proteinopathies, and no way to distinguish who is affected before death. It is now clear that TDP-43 proteinopathy leads to a number of molecular changes, including the de-repression and inclusion of cryptic exons. Importantly, some of these cryptic exons lead to the loss of crucial neuronal proteins and have been shown to be key pathogenic players in disease pathogenesis (e.g., STMN2), as well as being able to modify disease progression (e.g., UNC13A). Thus, these aberrant splicing events make promising novel therapeutic targets to restore functional gene expression. Moreover, presence of these cryptic exons is highly specific to patients and areas of the brain affected by TDP-43 proteinopathy, offering the potential to develop biomarkers for early detection and stratification of patients. In summary, the discovery of cryptic exons gives hope for novel diagnostics and therapeutics on the horizon for TDP-43 proteinopathies.

Endogenous retroviruses and TDP-43 proteinopathy form a sustaining feedback driving intercellular spread of Drosophila neurodegeneration.

Inter-cellular movement of "prion-like" proteins is thought to explain propagation of neurodegeneration between cells. For example, propagation of abnormally phosphorylated cytoplasmic inclusions of TAR-DNA-Binding protein (TDP-43) is proposed to underlie progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). But unlike transmissible prion diseases, ALS and FTD are not infectious and injection of aggregated TDP-43 is not sufficient to cause disease. This suggests a missing component of a positive feedback necessary to sustain disease progression. We demonstrate that endogenous retrovirus (ERV) expression and TDP-43 proteinopathy are mutually reinforcing. Expression of either Drosophila mdg4-ERV (gypsy) or the human ERV, HERV-K (HML-2) are each sufficient to stimulate cytoplasmic aggregation of human TDP-43. Viral ERV transmission also triggers TDP-43 pathology in recipient cells that express physiological levels of TDP-43, whether they are in contact or at a distance. This mechanism potentially underlies the TDP-43 proteinopathy-caused neurodegenerative propagation through neuronal tissue.

Reviewing the Potential Links between Viral Infections and TDP-43 Proteinopathies.

Transactive response DNA binding protein 43 kDa (TDP-43) was discovered in 2001 as a cellular factor capable to inhibit HIV-1 gene expression. Successively, it was brought to new life as the most prevalent RNA-binding protein involved in several neurological disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). Despite the fact that these two research areas could be considered very distant from each other, in recent years an increasing number of publications pointed out the existence of a potentially important connection. Indeed, the ability of TDP-43 to act as an important regulator of all aspects of RNA metabolism makes this protein also a critical factor during expression of viral RNAs. Here, we summarize all recent observations regarding the involvement of TDP-43 in viral entry, replication and latency in several viruses that include enteroviruses (EVs), Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs), hepatitis B virus (HBV), severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), West Nile virus (WNV), and herpes simplex virus-2 (HSV). In particular, in this work, we aimed to highlight the presence of similarities with the most commonly studied TDP-43 related neuronal dysfunctions.

TDP-43 Proteinopathy and Tauopathy: Do They Have Pathomechanistic Links?

Transactivation response DNA binding protein 43 kDa (TDP-43) and tau are major pathological proteins of neurodegenerative disorders, of which neuronal and glial aggregates are pathological hallmarks. Interestingly, accumulating evidence from neuropathological studies has shown that comorbid TDP-43 pathology is observed in a subset of patients with tauopathies, and vice versa. The concomitant pathology often spreads in a disease-specific manner and has morphological characteristics in each primary disorder. The findings from translational studies have suggested that comorbid TDP-43 or tau pathology has clinical impacts and that the comorbid pathology is not a bystander, but a part of the disease process. Shared genetic risk factors or molecular abnormalities between TDP-43 proteinopathies and tauopathies, and direct interactions between TDP-43 and tau aggregates, have been reported. Further investigations to clarify the pathogenetic factors that are shared by a broad spectrum of neurodegenerative disorders will establish key therapeutic targets.

Mislocalization of Nup62 Contributes to TDP-43 Proteinopathy in ALS/FTLD.

The nucleocytoplasmic transport (NCT) is impaired in C9-ALS/FTLD, a common genetically caused form of ALS and FTLD. The NCT is regulated by proteins called FG-nucleoporins (FG-Nups), with domains enriched in phenylalanine-glycine repeats. However, the relationship between FG-Nups and TDP-43, an RBP found to be mislocalized in ALS/FTLD patients, has not been defined. A recent study found that a critical protein, FG-Nup62, is mislocalized both in vivo and in vitro in diseased states. The mislocalized Nup62 was colocalized with TDP-43 in cytoplasmic inclusions and promoted its liquid-to-solid transition. The work highlights the involvement of Nup62 in the pathogenesis of ALS/FTLD and the interaction between Nup62 and TDP-43.

Emerging Therapies and Novel Targets for TDP-43 Proteinopathy in ALS/FTD.

Nuclear clearance and cytoplasmic mislocalization of the essential RNA binding protein, TDP-43, is a pathologic hallmark of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal dementia, and related neurodegenerative disorders collectively termed "TDP-43 proteinopathies." TDP-43 mislocalization causes neurodegeneration through both loss and gain of function mechanisms. Loss of TDP-43 nuclear RNA processing function destabilizes the transcriptome by multiple mechanisms including disruption of pre-mRNA splicing, the failure of repression of cryptic exons, and retrotransposon activation. The accumulation of cytoplasmic TDP-43, which is prone to aberrant liquid-liquid phase separation and aggregation, traps TDP-43 in the cytoplasm and disrupts a host of downstream processes including the trafficking of RNA granules, local translation within axons, and mitochondrial function. In this review, we will discuss the TDP-43 therapy development pipeline, beginning with therapies in current and upcoming clinical trials, which are primarily focused on accelerating the clearance of TDP-43 aggregates. Then, we will look ahead to emerging strategies from preclinical studies, first from high-throughput genetic and pharmacologic screens, and finally from mechanistic studies focused on the upstream cause(s) of TDP-43 disruption in ALS/FTD. These include modulation of stress granule dynamics, TDP-43 nucleocytoplasmic shuttling, RNA metabolism, and correction of aberrant splicing events.

TAR DNA-binding protein of 43 kDa (TDP-43) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS): a promising therapeutic target.

INTRODUCTION: Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease that lacks an effective treatment. Aggregates of the TAR DNA-binding protein-43 (TDP-43) are observed in 97% of all ALS cases, thus making this protein a major therapeutic target in ALS. . AREAS COVERED: The authors describe the major cellular functions of TDP-43 and the features and consequences of TDP-43 proteinopathy. Drawing from fundamental and preclinical studies on cellular and animal TDP-43 models of ALS and selected clinical trials, the major pathways that have been targeted for the mitigation of TDP-43 pathology in ALS are discussed. The authors provide insights on the approaches targeting the tendency of TDP-43 for aggregation, defective nucleocytoplasmic transport, dysfunctional proteostasis, abnormal stress granule dynamics, and pathological post-translational modifications of TDP-43. EXPERT OPINION: The complexity of ALS and TDP-43 proteinopathy generates challenges for the development of novel therapeutic approaches. However, the critical involvement of TDP-43 in the initiation and progression of ALS, makes it a promising therapeutic target. Further research should be centered on the development of precision strategies, consideration of patient subgroups, the prevention of the mislocalization of TDP-43 and restoration of the lost functions of TPD-43. .

Old age amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and limbic TDP-43 pathology.

This study aimed to assess and compare the burden of transactive response DNA-binding protein of 43 kDa (TDP-43) pathology and clinical features of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) in three age groups. All cases were from the Mayo Clinic brain bank for neurodegenerative disorders and most were followed longitudinally in the ALS Clinic. Cases with moderate-to-severe Alzheimer's disease neuropathological change were excluded. The 55 cases included in the study were divided into three groups by age at death: 75 years or older (old-ALS, n = 8), 64-74 years (middle-ALS, n = 23), and 63 years or younger (young-ALS, n = 24). Clinical features, including disease duration, initial symptoms, and ALS Cognitive Behavior Score (ALS-CBS), were summarized. Sections of paraffin-embedded tissue from the motor cortex, basal forebrain, medial temporal lobe, and middle frontal gyrus were processed for phospho-TDP-43 immunohistochemistry. The burden of TDP-43 pathology was analyzed using digital image analysis. The TDP-43 burden in the limbic system (i.e., amygdala, dentate gyrus and CA1 sector of the hippocampus, subiculum, and entorhinal cortex) was greater in old-ALS than in young-ALS and middle-ALS. TDP-43 burden in the middle frontal gyrus was sparse and did not differ between the three groups. The average of ALS-CBS was not different between the three groups. The present study shows that the amygdala and hippocampus are vulnerable to TDP-43 pathology in older patients with ALS. We discuss the evidence for and against this pathology being related to concurrent limbic-predominant, age-related TDP-43 encephalopathy neuropathologic change.

Limbic-predominant age-related TDP-43 encephalopathy neuropathological change (LATE-NC) is associated with lower R2 relaxation rate: an ex-vivo MRI and pathology investigation.

Limbic predominant age-related transactive response DNA binding protein 43 (TDP-43) encephalopathy neuropathological change (LATE-NC) is common in persons older than 80 years of age and is associated with cognitive decline and increased likelihood of dementia. The MRI signature of LATE-NC has not been fully determined. In this study, the association of LATE-NC with the transverse relaxation rate, R2, was investigated in a large number of community-based older adults. Cerebral hemispheres from 738 participants of the Rush Memory and Aging Project, Religious Orders Study, and Minority Aging Research Study, were imaged ex-vivo with multi-echo spin-echo MRI and underwent detailed neuropathologic examination. Voxel-wise analysis revealed a novel spatial pattern of lower R2 for higher LATE-NC stage, controlling for other neuropathologies and demographics. This pattern was consistent with the distribution of LATE-NC in gray matter, and also involved white matter providing temporo-temporal, fronto-temporal, and temporo-basal ganglia connectivity. Furthermore, analysis at different LATE-NC stages showed that R2 imaging may capture the general progression of LATE-NC, but only when TDP-43 inclusions extend beyond the amygdala.

The Role of TDP-43 in Neurodegenerative Disease.

In recent years, more and more neurodegenerative diseases, such as ALS, FTLD and AD, have been found to share a common pathological feature, which is the depletion of TDP-43 in the nucleus and the accumulation of TDP-43 in the cytoplasm through hyperphosphorylation, ubiquitination and cleavage. Therefore, this kind of neurodegenerative disease is also called TDP-43 proteinopathy. This suggests that TDP-43 plays a role in the pathogenesis of disease. Current studies show that the pathophysiological mechanism of TDP-43 in neurodegeneration is very complex. In this review, we describe the structure of TDP-43, its main physiological functions, the possible pathogenesis and how TDP-43 provides a new pathway to treat neurodegenerative diseases.