Integrating context in the examination of pubertal timing effects on disordered eating among Black and Latinx girls.

Earlier pubertal onset has been associated with increased disordered eating symptoms in cisgender girls. Although this finding has been replicated across studies of disordered eating, most studies have focused on white samples. The lack of studies is surprising given that early pubertal timing may impact disordered eating risk in Black and Latinx girls differently due to trends of earlier pubertal onset in these groups and increased stressors related to interpersonal and structural racism and economic marginalization. Current methods of examining pubertal timing among Black and Latinx girls may also not fully capture their experience. Contextual factors (e.g., neighborhood and school racial/ethnic composition) may influence how minoritized girls both perceive and are affected by their pubertal timing. Moreover, factors such as ethnic-racial identity development and experiences of discrimination may be important mechanisms explaining the association between pubertal timing and disordered eating risk. This paper aims to provide a brief overview of studies examining pubertal timing and disordered eating risk among Black and Latinx girls in the US and to discuss recommendations for future research that integrate contextual factors in the examination of pubertal timing and its effects. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: Early pubertal timing has been associated with increased risk of disordered eating symptoms among cisgender girls; however, studies have been limited due to the use of predominantly white samples. The article provides a brief overview of findings related to pubertal timing effects among Black and Latinx girls, discusses considerations for the measurement of pubertal timing, and highlights the need for inclusion of contextual factors in future research.

Navigating puberty, identity, and race among transnationally, transracially adopted Korean American adolescents.

This exploratory study examined the relation between pubertal timing and dimensions of ethnic-racial identity among adopted Korean Americans raised transracially in White families. The study also examined whether internalized racism moderated the association between pubertal timing and ethnic-racial identity. Adopted Korean American adolescents (N = 202; 108 females; ages 13-19 years) completed measures of pubertal development, ethnic-racial identity, and internalized racism in 2007. There was no significant main effect of pubertal timing for either male or female adolescents. Internalized racism moderated the relation between pubertal timing and ethnic-racial identity clarity (B = -.16, p = .015) among male adolescents. Specifically, earlier pubertal timing was significantly associated with lower ethnic-racial identity clarity for male adolescents with higher levels of internalized racism.

[Puberty ritual of a Tamil girl in France and psychopathology]. / Rituel de puberté chez une jeune fille tamoule en France et psychopathologie.

What place should be given to puberty? In France, it is an intimate act that belongs only to the young girl. In Sri Lanka, it is a family and collective act that is ritualized and celebrated. Young girls born into Tamil families living in France have to make these very different logics cohabit. Analyse of a young girl's great suffering at puberty and its methods of reconstruction, which take into account the ways of doing and thinking about puberty here and there.

Racial differences in prostate cancer: does timing of puberty play a role?

The burden of prostate cancer has a remarkably disproportionate distribution across racial groups. For example, in the USA, African Americans are twice as likely as individuals of European ancestry to develop or die from prostate cancer, and have a more aggressive disease nature at diagnosis. In contrast, Asian American men have the lowest incidence and mortality rates of prostate cancer. That considerable racial disparities exist even in the subclinical stage of prostate cancer among young men in their 20-30s suggests that patterns of prostate carcinogenesis start to diverge even earlier, perhaps during puberty, when the prostate matures at its most rapid rate. Mendelian randomisation studies have provided strong population-based evidence supporting the hypothesis that earlier onset of puberty increases the risk of prostate cancer-particularly of high grade-and prostate cancer-specific mortality later in life, observations which correspond to the epidemiology of the disease in African Americans. Notably, African American boys initiate genital development ~1 year earlier and thus go through longer periods of pubertal maturation compared with European American boys. In this perspective, bringing together existing evidence, we point to puberty as a potential critical window of increased susceptibility to prostate carcinogenesis that could account for the marked prevailing racial differences in the burden of prostate cancer.

Comparing Associations Between Puberty, Ethnic-Racial Identity, Self-Concept, and Depressive Symptoms Among African American and Caribbean Black Boys.

Research on pubertal development among Black boys is limited. Addressing this gap, we examined associations between three pubertal domains (e.g., voice change, hair growth, and perceived relative timing), depressive symptoms, self-esteem, and self-efficacy, among a nationally representative sample of 395 African American and 164 Caribbean Black boys (Mage  = 15 years). Moderation by ethnic-racial identity (e.g., racial centrality, racial regard) was also explored. Results indicated that for both ethnic subgroups early voice change increased self-esteem; whereas early voice change increased depressive symptoms among boys who felt society views Blacks more negatively. Buffering effects of ethnic-racial identity also varied significantly between the two groups. Findings suggest that the meaning Black boys ascribe to their ethnic-racial group may explain puberty-linked outcomes.

Impact of Pubertal Maturation and Chronologic Age on Sex Steroids in Peripubertal Girls.

CONTEXT: There is a 4- to 5-year variation in age of breast maturation in girls. OBJECTIVE: To examine longitudinal changes in sex hormone values relative to chronologic age and time relative to breast maturation. SETTING AND DESIGN: Longitudinal observational study into which girls were recruited at 6 to 7 years of age and followed up every 6 months. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Maturation status, chronologic age, race, and fasting blood specimen data were obtained. Hormones were analyzed at 6-month intervals between 2 years before and 1 year after breast maturation, using HPLC tandem mass spectroscopy. RESULTS: Estradiol and estrone levels correlated with chronologic age (R = 0.350 and 0.444, respectively); time was correlated relative to breast maturation (R = 0.222 and 0.323, respectively; all correlations, P < 0.0001). In generalized estimating equation (GEE) models, chronologic age and time relative to pubertal onset were significantly associated with serum estradiol, with similar results for estrone. Local estimated scatterplot smoothing for estradiol and estrone, by chronologic age, demonstrated differences between black and white girls, especially between 8.5 and 11 years of age, but not by race in time relative to breast maturation. Testosterone level was correlated to chronologic age (R = 0.362) and time relative to breast maturation (R = 0.259); in the GEE model, only chronologic age was significant. CONCLUSION: Chronologic age as well as time relative to onset of puberty provided unique information regarding estradiol and estrone concentrations in peripubertal girls. Serum estrogen concentrations should be evaluated with reference to chronologic age and race.

Girls' Sleep Trajectories Across the Pubertal Transition: Emerging Racial/Ethnic Differences.

PURPOSE: This study aims to examine the longitudinal association between puberty and sleep in a diverse sample of girls and explore racial/ethnic differences in this association. METHODS: Using latent growth curve modeling, the present study measured pubertal development (timing and rate) and sleep (wake time and bedtime) in 1,239 socioeconomically and ethnically diverse girls starting when they were 6-8 years old and followed longitudinally for up to 8 years. Pubertal assessment was conducted annually in clinic by physical examination, classified by sexual maturation stage for breast and pubic hair development by trained raters. RESULTS: In line with previous research, black girls had the earliest pubertal development, followed by Hispanic, white, and Asian girls. Black girls, on average, reported significantly shorter sleep duration than Hispanic (ß = -.20, p < .001), Asian (ß = -.29, p = .002), and white (ß = -.35, p < .001) girls. In a series of dual-process models, we found that early pubertal timing predicted shorter sleep duration for early-maturing black girls (breast development: ß = .13, p = .005; pubic hair development: ß = .14, p = .012). There was no evidence of any association between pubertal rate and sleep. All models controlled for family socioeconomic status and body mass index. CONCLUSION: Sleep is essential for many aspects of youth development, including emotional, cognitive, and physical functioning. Developmental changes associated with puberty may put some early maturing girls at risk of shorter sleep duration in adolescence and exacerbate racial/ethnic disparities in health and well-being.

Timing of Puberty in Overweight Versus Obese Boys.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Studies of the relationship of weight status with timing of puberty in boys have been mixed. This study examined whether overweight and obesity are associated with differences in the timing of puberty in US boys. METHODS: We reanalyzed recent community-based pubertal data from the American Academy of Pediatrics' Pediatric Research in Office Settings study in which trained clinicians assessed boys 6 to 16 years for height, weight, Tanner stages, testicular volume (TV), and other pubertal variables. We classified children based on BMI as normal weight, overweight, or obese and compared median age at a given Tanner stage or greater by weight class using probit and ordinal probit models and a Bayesian approach. RESULTS: Half of boys (49.9%, n = 1931) were white, 25.8% (n = 1000) were African American, and 24.3% (n = 941) were Hispanic. For genital development in white and African American boys across a variety of Tanner stages, we found earlier puberty in overweight compared with normal weight boys, and later puberty in obese compared with overweight, but no significant differences for Hispanics. For TV (≥3 mL or ≥4 mL), our findings support earlier puberty for overweight compared with normal weight white boys. CONCLUSIONS: In a large, racially diverse, community-based sample of US boys, we found evidence of earlier puberty for overweight compared with normal or obese, and later puberty for obese boys compared with normal and overweight boys. Additional studies are needed to understand the possible relationships among race/ethnicity, gender, BMI, and the timing of pubertal development.

Age at spermarche: 15-year trend and its association with body mass index in Chinese school-aged boys.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the secular trends in age at spermarche among boys, and the association between body mass index (BMI) and male puberty is controversial. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to estimate the trend in age at spermarche in China and explore the association of spermarche with BMI. METHODS: We used four cross-sectional Chinese National Surveys on Students' Constitution and Health (CNSSCH; 1995, 2000, 2005 and 2010). Median age at spermarche was determined using probit analysis. Logistic regression was used to assess the association of spermarche with BMI. RESULTS: Age at spermarche among Chinese boys dropped from 14.57 to 14.03 years from 1995 to 2010 with a decrease of 4.3 months per decade. Boys with BMI-for-age z-score lower than -2 had the latest age at spermarche. A higher BMI or BMI-for-age z-score was associated with an increased likelihood of having reached spermarche, and this association was consistently observed at all survey points. CONCLUSION: This study provides important evidence of a secular trend of earlier age at spermarche over the past 15 years in China, and this decrease was accompanied by a simultaneous increase in BMI. Strategies and interventions focusing on thinness may promote both their nutritional status and puberty development among Chinese boys.

An 8-Year Prospective Study of Depressive Symptoms and Change in Insulin From Adolescence to Young Adulthood.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether depressive symptoms predict change in fasting insulin among adolescents followed into young adulthood. We hypothesized that higher depressive symptoms would predict increased insulin and that puberty and race/ethnicity would moderate this relationship. METHODS: Data came from the Princeton School District Study, a school-based longitudinal cohort of non-Hispanic black and white adolescents (2001-2011). Depressive symptoms, fasting insulin, and body mass index were measured at baseline (adolescence) and 8 years later (young adulthood) in 685 participants. Puberty was assessed using a validated protocol measuring sex steroids and physical changes. The primary outcome was change in fasting insulin. Analyses accounted for age, sex, race, parental education, baseline insulin, body mass index z score, puberty, and time to follow-up. RESULTS: At baseline, depressive symptoms were correlated with insulin (ρ = 0.13, p = .001). High baseline insulin predicted insulin change (B = -11.50, standard error [SE] = 2.30, p < .001). Depressive symptoms also predicted insulin change, but only for pubertal adolescents (B = -0.23, SE = 0.11, p = .038). This relationship was moderated by race (p = .047); depressive symptoms predicted insulin change only among pubertal black adolescents (p = .030), not white (p = .49), and in the direction opposite that hypothesized (Bblacks = -0.51, SE = 0.23). Post hoc analyses revealed that pubertal black adolescents with high depressive symptoms had the highest baseline insulin, which stayed high across the follow-up period. CONCLUSIONS: Among pubertal black adolescents, elevated depressive symptoms are associated with increased risk for sustained hyperinsulinemia from adolescence into adulthood. These youths may be particularly vulnerable for Type 2 diabetes.

The influence of pubertal timing and stressful life events on depression and delinquency among Chinese adolescents.

This study aimed to investigate the influences of pubertal timing and stressful life events on Chinese adolescents' depression and delinquency. Sex differences in these influences were also examined. A large sample with 4,228 participants aged 12-15 years (53% girls) was recruited in Beijing, China. Participants' pubertal development, stressful life events, depressive symptoms, and delinquency were measured using self-reported questionnaires. Both early maturing girls and boys displayed more delinquency than their same-sex on-time and late maturing peers. Early maturing girls displayed more depressive symptoms than on-time and late maturing girls, but boys in the three maturation groups showed similar levels of depressive symptoms. The interactive effects between early pubertal timing and stressful life events were significant in predicting depression and delinquency, particularly for girls. Early pubertal maturation is an important risk factor for Chinese adolescents' depression and delinquency. Stressful life events intensified the detrimental effects of early pubertal maturation on adolescents' depression and delinquency, particularly for girls.

Pubertal timing of Latinas and school connectedness during the transition to middle school.

During the middle school transition, adolescents are often faced with physical and school contextual changes that may impact how they perceive that first transitional year. The present study examined how pubertal timing (onset of menarche) was associated with Latinas' school connectedness during the first year in middle school and whether that relationship was moderated by perceived school ethnic composition and body mass index (BMI) (i.e., a reliable indicator of body fat calculated from participants' age, height, and weight). Sixth-grade Latinas (N = 609) at the beginning and end of the first year of middle school indicated whether menarche had begun. From this question, girls were classified as early maturers (started menarche before 6th grade), changers (started during 6th grade) or later maturers (had not started by the end of 6th grade). Changers who attended schools where they perceived fewer same-ethnic peers and they deviated from the Latina BMI mean of that school in the direction of lower BMI (i.e., toward being underweight), reported more school connectedness than early and later-maturing Latinas. These findings underscored the importance of finding one's niche and fitting in for girls who are maturing during a period of both rapid physical change and a school transition.

Breastfeeding versus formula-feeding and girls' pubertal development.

To examine the association of breastfeeding or its duration with timing of girls' pubertal onset, and the role of BMI as a mediator in these associations. A population of 1,237 socio-economically and ethnically diverse girls, ages 6-8 years, was recruited across three geographic locations (New York City, Cincinnati, and the San Francisco Bay Area) in a prospective study of predictors of pubertal maturation. Breastfeeding practices were assessed using self-administered questionnaire/interview with the primary caregiver. Girls were seen on at least annual basis to assess breast and pubic hair development. The association of breastfeeding with pubertal timing was estimated using parametric survival analysis while adjusting for body mass index, ethnicity, birth-weight, mother's education, mother's menarcheal age, and family income. Compared to formula fed girls, those who were mixed-fed or predominantly breastfed showed later onset of breast development [hazard ratios 0.90 (95 % CI 0.75, 1.09) and 0.74 (95 % CI 0.59, 0.94), respectively]. Duration of breastfeeding was also directly associated with age at onset of breast development (p trend = 0.008). Associations between breastfeeding and pubic hair onset were not significant. In stratified analysis, the association of breastfeeding and later breast onset was seen in Cincinnati girls only. The association between breast feeding and pubertal onset varied by study site. More research is needed about the environments within which breastfeeding takes place in order to better understand whether infant feeding practices are a potentially modifiable risk factor that may influence age at onset of breast development and subsequent risk for disease in adulthood.

The influence of early sexual debut and pubertal timing on psychological distress among Taiwanese adolescents.

This study examined the relative influence of early sexual debut (ESD) and pubertal timing on psychological distress from adolescence to young adulthood in Taiwan, a non-Western society with a distinct cultural and family context. Data were from a cohort sample of 15-year-olds (N = 2595) first interviewed in 2000, with four follow-ups during a 7-year period. Psychological distress was assessed by a reduced form of the Symptom Checklist-90 Revised. ESD was defined by first intercourse at age 15 or younger. Multivariate analyses via growth curve modeling found a greater increase in psychological distress over time in adolescents with ESD (ß = .28, p < .05). Early-pubertal adolescents were at greater risk for the onset of psychological distress (ß = .46, p < .05). Further, early pubertal adolescents with an ESD appeared to be especially likely to be distressed (ß = 3.39, p < .05). In addition, analyses showed a non-linear trajectory of psychological distress between the ages of 15 and 22, with distress escalating (ß = .45, p < .001) as age increased before tapering off as adolescents became young adults (ß = -.03, p < .001). Results suggest the contributing influence of both ESD and pubertal timing on distress trajectories, independent of parental and family characteristics.

Age at hormonal onset of puberty based on luteinizing hormone, inhibin B, and body composition in preadolescent U.S. girls.

BACKGROUND: Hormonal indicators could be useful for detecting early pubertal onset, but there is little research on how they are related to puberty in U.S. girls. We determined median age at hormonal onset of puberty based on luteinizing hormone (LH) and inhibin B (InB) and explored the extent to which body composition moderates this timing process. METHODS: We analyzed anthropometric and hormone data of 698 US peri-pubertal girls ages 6-11.99 y who had participated in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III), 1988-1994. RESULTS: Median age of hormonal onset of puberty was 10.43 y by LH and 10.08 y by InB cut-offs (1.04 mIU/ml for LH and 17.89 pg/ml for InB). Postnatal weight gain modulated onset, making it earlier by 10-11 mo among the highest (greater than +1 SD) relative to normal weight gainers. Onset occurred first in non-Hispanic black (NHB) girls, 10.08 y (95% confidence interval (CI): 10.07-10.09), followed by Mexican-American (MXAM) at 10.64 y (95% CI: 10.63-10.65), and at 10.66 y (95% CI: 10.66-10.67) for non-Hispanic white (NHW) girls using LH. With InB, onset occurred first in MXAM girls at 9.9 y, and at 10.3 y and 10.4 y for their NHB and NHW peers, respectively. CONCLUSION: Preadolescent weight gain lowers the age at hormonal onset as defined by LH concentrations. Preventing obesity in childhood may also avert the earlier initiation of the maturation process even at the hormonal level.

Risking it for love: romantic relationships and early pubertal development confer risk for later disruptive behavior disorders in African-American girls receiving psychiatric care.

Disruptive behavior problems (DBP) represent a growing concern for young women (e.g., Snyder and Sickmund, 2006), but gender-specific investigations have been traditionally underrepresented in this area. The purpose of this study is to examine the associations among gender-relevant risk factors for DBP among 217 African American girls in psychiatric care. African American girls, 12-16 years old (M = 14.6; SD = 1.2), and their primary female caregivers (N = 254) were recruited from outpatient mental health clinics and reported on girls' DBP, heterosexual dating experiences (romantic and sexual), peer relationships, pubertal development, and self-silencing at baseline, 6-, and 12 months. Structural Equation Modeling examined evidence for full versus mediated (via self-silencing) models and the structural relationships (direct and indirect) among key study variables. Results suggest that the full model was a significantly better fit than the mediated model as indicated by a Chi-squared difference test (p < 0.01). In the full model, direct effects of greater romantic dating experiences and lower quality peer relationships at baseline predicted DBP at 12 months. Sexual dating experiences were more strongly linked with DBP at 12 months for early maturing compared to average or later maturing girls. Indirect effects analyses suggested that girls' suppression of relational needs, assessed through a measure of self-silencing, explained the association between peer relationships and DBP. Findings highlight the importance of the relational context for girls' DBP, with treatment implications supporting relationship-based models of care, early intervention, and skill building around negotiating needs with peers and partners.

Fracture patterns and bone mass in South African adolescent-mother pairs: the Birth to Twenty cohort.

UNLABELLED: The associations of fracture prevalence and bone mass in adolescents with maternal fracture history and bone mass have not been investigated previously in South Africa. Maternal bone mass has a significant inverse association with their adolescents' fracture rates and bone mass across all ethnic groups. INTRODUCTION: Differences in fracture rates and bone mass between families and individuals of different ethnic origins may be due to differing lifestyles and/or genetic backgrounds. This study aimed to assess associations of fracture prevalence and bone mass in adolescents with maternal fracture history and bone mass, and sibling fracture history. METHODS: Data from 1,389 adolescent-biological mother pairs from the Birth to Twenty longitudinal study were obtained. Questionnaires were completed on adolescent fractures until 17/18 years of age and on sibling fractures. Biological mothers completed questionnaires on their own fractures prior to the age of 18 years. Anthropometric and bone mass data on adolescent-biological mother pairs were collected. RESULTS: An adolescent's risk of lifetime fracture decreased with increasing maternal lumbar spine (LS) bone mineral content (BMC; 24 % reduction in fracture risk for every unit increase in maternal LS BMC Z-score) and increased if they were white, male, or had a sibling with a history of fracture. Adolescent height, weight, male gender, maternal bone area and BMC, and white ethnicity were positive predictors of adolescent bone mass. White adolescents and their mothers had a higher fracture prevalence (adolescents 42 %, mothers 31 %) compared to the black (adolescents 20 %, mothers 6 %) and mixed ancestry (adolescents 20 %, mothers 16 %) groups. CONCLUSION: Maternal bone mass has a significant inverse association with their adolescent off-springs' fracture risk and bone mass. Furthermore, there is a strong familial component in fracture patterns among South African adolescents and their siblings.

Onset of breast development in a longitudinal cohort.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: There is growing evidence of pubertal maturation occurring at earlier ages, with many studies based on cross-sectional observations. This study examined age at onset of breast development (thelarche), and the impact of BMI and race/ethnicity, in the 3 puberty study sites of the Breast Cancer and the Environment Research Program, a prospective cohort of >1200 girls. METHODS: Girls, 6 to 8 years at enrollment, were followed longitudinally at regular intervals from 2004 to 2011 in 3 geographic areas: the San Francisco Bay Area, Greater Cincinnati, and New York City. Sexual maturity assessment using Tanner staging was conducted by using standardized observation and palpation methods by trained and certified staff. Kaplan-Meier analyses were used to describe age at onset of breast maturation by covariates. RESULTS: The age at onset of breast stage 2 varied by race/ethnicity, BMI at baseline, and site. Median age at onset of breast stage 2 was 8.8, 9.3, 9.7, and 9.7 years for African American, Hispanic, white non-Hispanic, and Asian participants, respectively. Girls with greater BMI reached breast stage 2 at younger ages. Age-specific and standardized prevalence of breast maturation was contrasted to observations in 2 large cross-sectional studies conducted 10 to 20 years earlier (Pediatric Research in Office Settings and National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III) and found to have occurred earlier among white, non-Hispanic, but not African American girls. CONCLUSIONS: We observed the onset of thelarche at younger ages than previously documented, with important differences associated with race/ethnicity and BMI, confirming and extending patterns seen previously. These findings are consistent with temporal changes in BMI.

Racial disparities in pubertal development.

The question of whether or not children, particularly girls, are entering puberty earlier than they did in the past has been a concern in both the medical community and the general population. A secular trend analysis of the current data on pubertal timing in boys and girls is limited by variations in the study design, the population assessed, and the methods used to determine pubertal development. These differences present a challenge when interpreting the available data, especially when comparing multiple studies. The influence of race on pubertal timing and development had not been assessed before the 1970s. The purpose of this article is to review the reported variations in pubertal timing among different racial/ethnic groups. Data suggest African American girls enter puberty earlier and reach menarche earlier than Caucasian and Hispanic girls. In addition, the trend toward earlier timing of puberty seems to be occurring faster in African American girls compared with Caucasian girls over the past 25 years. While the mechanism and understanding of the cause of racial disparities in pubertal development remain to be discerned, genetic and/or environmental factors may play a role and require further investigation.